Rhetoric

Rhetoric

the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion

Counterpart to rhetoric?

dialectic

Dialectic

a method of reasoning and philosophical argument that uncovers the truth by examining the clash between opposing ideas or forces

Aristotle: three genres of rhetoric

Deliberative, Forensic , Epideictic

Deliberative

Future-oriented; urges an audience to do or not do something (policy or action). Typical question: What should we do?

Forensic (judicial)

Past-oriented; accuses or defends, usually addressing justice or injustice. Typical question: What happened, and was it right?

Epideictic

Present-oriented praise or blame; reinforces shared values and collective identity. Typical question: What deserves honor or condemnation?

Aristotle: three appeals

Ethos, Pathos, Logos

Ethos

argumentation through character and presentation

Pathos

argumentation through emotion

Logos

argumentation through logic ans reasoning

Aristotle: argument forms

Enthymeme, paradeigma

Enthymeme

A rhetorical deduction where part of the reasoning may remain unstated because the audience supplies a shared assumption. Example: “She understands working families—she grew up on a farm.” The missing premise is that such an upbringing confers understanding.

paradeigma

An inductive persuasive move from particular cases to a broader claim; Aristotle discusses historical examples and invented comparisons/fables

Parallelism/parisons

Repeated grammatical pattern: “To serve, to build, to lead.” Provides rhythm, clarity and coherence

Anecdote

Brief illustrative story about a person/event. Humanizes abstract policies; adds identification.

Principle of chairty

Interpret an opposing argument in its strongest reasonable form before criticizing it.

Evidence quality

Ask: Is the source credible? Are terms defined? Is evidence relevant, representative, accurate, sufficient, and current for the claim? Are causation and correlation confused?

Ad hominem

Attacking a person instead of addressing their argument.

Straw man

Distorting the opposing claim into an easier position to refute.

False dilemma

Presenting only two options when more are available.

Hasty generalization

Drawing a broad conclusion from too few or unrepresentative examples.

False cause

Assuming that one event caused another without adequate support.

Loaded language

Using emotionally charged terms to tilt judgment before argument or evidence is supplied.

Three character-based reasons for trust

good sense, good character/excellence, and goodwill

Anger

involves a painful desire for revenge in response to perceived slight

parallels/fables

they make a general argument understandable through particular cases.

Socratic questioning

challenge settled beliefs by asking clarifying questions, seeking justification, and testing consistency rather than simply accepting authority.

Reflective thinking

scientific method

Metonymy

Uses an associated thing to stand for another. Bodily effects such as blood and sweat stand for sacrifice and labor

Chiasmus

Reverses corresponding elements across clauses. The reversal creates a compact, memorable formulation and can reframe apparent setbacks.

John Stuart Mill -

Even true belief can become “dead dogma” if it is never challenged. Discussing objections helps people understand WHY they believe it

Joel Best, Damned Lies and Statistics, “Soft Facts”

Four major routes to problematic statistics: guessing, questionable definitions, flawed measurements, and weak sampling

Martha Nussbaum, “Emotions and Law”

Emotions play real roles in legal judgment. They are not automatically irrelevant, irrational impulses; their appropriateness may be evaluated based on beliefs, circumstances, and evidence. Rememeber wife kills sleeping husband who abused her. Were the circumstances relevant, or appeal to emotion?

Jonathan Charteris-Black,

Political speeches are often collaboratively written, but speakers retain accountability; the speech must align with their perceived political identity. Speechwriting creates questions of authenticity and trust.

American political speechwriting

as appeals to founding ideals, collective “we,” national identity, stories of ordinary people, hope, and calls to action. Reframe tragedies to unite

Heuristic

mental shortcuts humans use to come to quick decisions