Retrieval - Chapter 8

Retrieval

The process of accessing information stored in memory.

Cues

Pieces of information that help trigger the retrieval of a memory.

Target memory

The specific information or memory you are trying to retrieve.

Association

A connection between pieces of information that allows one to help retrieve another.

Spreading activation

When activating one concept in memory automatically activates other related concepts.

Pattern completion

Retrieving a complete memory when only part of the original information or experience is available.

Encoding specificity principle

Memory is better when retrieval cues match the information or conditions present during encoding.

Context cues

Information about the circumstances in which something was learned, such as location, time, or surroundings, that helps retrieve a memory.

Direct/Explicit memory tests

Tests that require consciously remembering previously learned information, such as recall or recognition.

Source monitoring

The process of identifying where a memory or piece of information originally came from.

Context-dependent memory

Remembering information better when the environment during retrieval matches the environment during learning.

State-dependent memory

Remembering information better when your physical or physiological state during retrieval matches your state during learning.

Mood-dependent memory

Remembering information better when your mood during retrieval matches your mood during learning.

Recall memory

Retrieving previously learned information without being shown the complete answer, such as answering an essay question.

Recognition memory

Identifying information as something you have previously encountered, such as recognizing the correct answer on a multiple-choice test.

Signal detection theory

A theory explaining how people distinguish previously encountered information from new information while accounting for their tendency to respond yes or no.

False alarm

Incorrectly identifying new information as something previously encountered.

Hit

Correctly identifying information that was previously encountered.

Miss

Failing to recognize information that was previously encountered.

Schema (reconstructive memory)

Existing knowledge that helps reconstruct memories but can also cause errors or distortions.

Tip-of-the-tongue state

The feeling of knowing information but being temporarily unable to retrieve it.

Misinformation effect

When misleading information received after an event changes or distorts someone's memory of that event.

Seven sins of memory

Seven common ways memory can fail: transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence.

What did Bartlett (1932) find?

Memory is reconstructive, meaning people use schemas and prior knowledge to fill in missing details. This can cause memories to become distorted over time.

What did Loftus & Palmer (1973) find?

The wording of questions can influence memory. Participants who heard stronger words like "smashed" estimated higher car speeds than those who heard words like "hit," demonstrating the misinformation effect.

What did Brewer & Treyens (1981) find?

Participants falsely remembered objects they expected to see in an office, such as books, even when they were not present. This showed how schemas can create false memories.

What did Fernandes & Moscovitch (2000, 2003) find?

Dividing attention during retrieval reduces memory performance, especially when the distracting task involves similar information. Participants recalled fewer words when simultaneously processing other words.

What did Anderson & Pichert (1978) find?

Participants recalled different details about a house depending on whether they adopted a homebuyer's or burglar's perspective. Changing perspectives also helped them retrieve previously overlooked information.

What did Godden & Baddeley (1975) find?

Divers recalled words better when tested in the same environment where they learned them. Words learned underwater were remembered better underwater, supporting context-dependent memory.

What did Miles & Hardman (1998) find?

Memory performance was influenced by physiological state. Participants recalled information better when their exercise state during retrieval matched their state during learning, supporting state-dependent memory.

What did Roediger & McDermott (1995) find?

Participants frequently falsely remembered words that were strongly associated with studied words but were never actually presented. This demonstrated how associations can create false memories.

What did Anderson & Pichert (1978) find about adopting different perspectives when reading a story?

C. Both A and B. Participants remembered more information relevant to their assigned perspective, whether they were thinking like a homebuyer or a burglar.

What memory error did Carla make when she incorrectly remembered where she heard information?

D. Source monitoring error. She remembered the information but confused where it originally came from.

What factors are necessary for successful retrieval?

Attention, appropriate retrieval cues, strong associations between cues and target memories, and effective retrieval strategies.

What makes a good retrieval cue?

A cue that is relevant, strongly associated with the target memory, and connected to how the information was originally encoded. Multiple specific cues can also improve retrieval.

How does context affect memory?

Memory is generally better when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding. This includes environmental surroundings, physiological states, and moods.