syntax PT 2

Constituent

A group of words that acts together as a unit within a sentence

How Do We Find a Constituent?

Grammaticality judgments

AND

Constituency tests

There is_______Constituency tests

4

If a group of words behaves like a single unit, it is probably a _________.

constituent

Constituency Test #1: Replacement

Take the suspected phrase and replace it with another word/expression ((pronouns, do/do too, then/there, adjective)

If the sentence still works appropriately, that can show that the words acted as a unit

Constituency Test #1: Replacement

Example:

The students saw a movie after class.

Replace:

a movie → it

➡ The students saw it after class.

That works.

So a movie behaves like a constituent

Replacement trick:

Ask:

Can I replace the whole group with ONE appropriate word?

If yes → evidence that it is a constituent.

IMPORTANT: Meaning Matters!

You can't just replace words and say:

"It is grammatical, so it must be a constituent."

You have to pay attention to:

1. Grammaticality

Does the new sentence sound grammatically correct?

2. Meaning

Does the replacement represent the same thing/idea?

Pay attention to both grammaticality and meaning when doing replacement tests.

Constituency Test #2: Movement

Move the suspected group somewhere else in the sentence.

If you can move the group without changing the sentence's meaning or grammaticality, that is evidence that it is a constituent.

Constituency Test #2: Movement

EXAMPLE

Elizabeth bought a hat at that fun little shop.

Move:

at that fun little shop

➡ At that fun little shop, Elizabeth bought a hat.

It still works.

So:

at that fun little shop = constituent

But:

❌ At that fun Elizabeth bought a hat little shop.

That doesn't work.

Why?

Because at that fun is not acting as one constituent.

Constituency Test #3: It-Cleft

Itake the string of words and put them after the words It was (or It is/It’s), then put the remaining part of the sentence after the word that

t-cleft structure:

It is/was ______ that ______.

Take the suspected group and put it after:

It was...

Then put the rest after:

that...

Constituency Test #3: It-Cleft

Example

Example:

Original:

The cat was sleeping on the desk.

Suspected constituent:

on the desk

Try:

It was on the desk that the cat was sleeping.

✅ Grammatical

Therefore:

on the desk = constituent

Example:

Original:

The cat was sleeping on the desk.

Try to use:

on the

➡ It was on the that the cat was sleeping desk.

❌ Doesn't work.

Therefore:

on the ≠ constituent

If the cleft IS grammatical →

you can be sure the phrase is a constituent

Constituency Test #4: Answering a Question

Can suspected constituent stand alone as the answer to a question based on the sentence?

Constituency Test #4: Answering a Question

example

Original:

The cat was sleeping on the desk.

Question:

Where was the cat sleeping?

Answer:

On the desk.

✅ on the desk = constituent

Because the entire phrase can answer the question

Constituency Test note

This is mainly practice, so just ask chat gpt to ask if something is contituent

What are functional categories?

This categoty often have purely grammatical meanings or uses

How does functional categories differ from lexical categories?

lexical categories classify words based on their grammatical AND semantic behavior.

Functional categories:

• Determiners

• Pronouns

• Auxiliaries

• Modal auxiliaries

• Prepositions

• Others: degree words, numbers, conjunctions

Determiner Short version for trees:

Determiner=

Det

What is a determiner?

a word that comes at the beginning of a noun phrase to show which specific noun you mean, how much of it there is, or who owns it.

A determiner is usually the ______ word in a noun phrase

first

You can usually have ________ determiner in a noun phrase

ONLY ONE

What is the basic noun phrase pattern with a determiner?

Det + N

Examples:

• the dog

• a dog

• this dog

• every dog

Unlike adjectives, you ______ normally have multiple determiners together.

cannot

You can have:

• the big red dog ✅

But not:

• the this dog ❌

because the and this are both determiners

What are the 4 types of determiners?

1. Definite article

2. Indefinite article

3. Demonstratives

4. Some quantifiers

What is the definite article?

the

What is the determiner in “the dog”?

the

What is the indefinite article?

a / an

What is the determiner in “a dog”?

What is the determiner in “an apple”?

a; an

What are demonstratives determiners?

this, that, these, those

What are some quantifiers that can function as determiners?

every, some, each, most, etc

Pronouns

Short version for trees:

Pronoun=

Pron

What do pronouns do?

Pronouns can replace a whole noun phrase

Examples:

Emily → she
the students → they
the book → it

First person singular (pronoums)

• I

• me

• my

First person plural (pronoums)

• we

• us

• our

Second person singular/plural (pronoums)

• you

• you

• your

Third person singular inanimate (pronoums)

• it

• it

• its

Third person singular feminine (pronoums)

• she

• her

• her

Third person singular masculine (pronoums)

• he

• him

• his

Third person animate singular/general plural (pronoums)

• they

• them

• their

Auxiliaries Short version:

Auxiliary

Aux

What are auxiliaries?

Helping verbs that occur alongside a lexical main verb.

Can auxiliaries be present or past tense?

Yes

Can auxiliaries show agreement?

Yes

What is one important rule about auxiliaries?

They always occur alongside a lexical main verb.

She is running.

• is = Aux

• running = lexical/main verb

Why? Because is is helping the main verb running.

What are the 3 auxiliaries listed in the slides?

have, be, do

Modal Auxiliaries

Short version for trees:

Modal Auxiliaries=

modal

Modal Auxiliaries

Two things to remember

1. They cannot be used as main verbs

2. They do NOT agree with the subject

Modal auxiliaries from the slides:

• will

• would

• can

• could

• may

• might

• shall

• should

• must

Have, be, do → can sometimes be main verbs

Auxiliary

Will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must → CANNOT be main verbs

Modal Auxiliary

Prepositions Short version for trees:

preposition=

p

Prepositions definition

Express location or grammatical relations

Prepositions are almost always followed by a ________.

noun phrase (NP)

A preposition often connects something to a noun phrase

EXAMPLE

on the table
with that person
beside the house
for the student

• on

• up

• beside

• above

• to

• with

• for

• of

PREPOSITIONS

PP =

Prepositional Phrase

Shows degree/amount

Degree

Degree example

very, way

Shows number/amount

Numbers

Numbers example

one, five, many, few

Connects words or parts

Conjunctions

Conjunctions examples

and, or, but

num

numbers

dregree

degree

Conjunctions

conj

Co-occurrence

which words need to occur together (or with certain other words) to make a sentence grammatically correct