Latin American History -Unit 2

Simón Bolívar

A Venezuelan Creole leader who helped liberate much of South America from Spanish rule.

George Washington

The leader of the American Continental Army who helped the 13 Colonies gain independence from Britain.

Creole

A person of European descent born in the Americas who had less political power than Spanish-born officials.

Peninsulares

People born in Spain who held important political positions in Spain's American colonies.

Enlightenment

A movement that emphasized reason, liberty, natural rights, and representative government.

Republicanism

The belief that a country should be governed by elected representatives rather than a monarch.

Separation of Powers

The division of government power among different branches to prevent one person or group from having too much power.

French Revolution

A revolution beginning in 1789 that spread ideas about liberty and equality and influenced independence movements.

Bourbon Reforms

Spanish policies that increased colonial taxes and control, angering Creoles.

Intolerable Acts

British laws passed in 1774 that restricted Massachusetts's self-government and angered American colonists.

No Taxation Without Representation

The American protest against being taxed by Britain without having elected representatives in Parliament.

Proclamation of 1763

A British order that restricted colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Napoleon's Invasion of Spain

In 1808, Napoleon removed the Spanish king, creating a crisis that helped Spanish American colonies pursue independence.

Juntas

Governing councils formed in Spanish America during the crisis of the Spanish monarchy.

War of Attrition

Washington's strategy of preserving his army and wearing down British resources and morale.

Valley Forge

The Continental Army's difficult winter encampment of 1777–1778, where soldiers endured severe shortages and trained.

Llaneros

Plainsmen in South America who helped Bolívar's independence forces.

Crossing the Andes

Bolívar's difficult 1819 military campaign that helped liberate New Granada from Spanish rule.

Gran Colombia

Bolívar's proposed united republic that included present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.

Cincinnatus Ideal

The idea that a leader should give up power voluntarily instead of seeking permanent control.

Washington's Legacy

He gave up military command and later left the presidency after two terms, setting an example for peaceful transfers of power.

Bolívar's Political Challenge

He struggled to unite South America because of regional divisions and political conflicts.

Dissolution of Gran Colombia

Gran Colombia broke apart in 1830 into separate countries.

Similarity Between Washington and Bolívar

Both were wealthy colonial elites influenced by Enlightenment ideas who led independence movements.

Difference Between Washington and Bolívar

Washington focused on preserving his army, while Bolívar used bold campaigns across South America and struggled to maintain political unity.

Casta System

A colonial social hierarchy that ranked people by ancestry and determined their social status, opportunities, and rights.

Peninsulares

People born in Spain who held the highest positions in colonial government and the Church.

Criollos (Creoles)

People of European, especially Spanish, descent born in the Americas who often had wealth but less political power than peninsulares.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattos

People of mixed African and European ancestry.

Zambos

People of mixed African and Indigenous ancestry.

Native Agency

The idea that Indigenous people actively shaped their own lives and responded to European colonization instead of simply accepting it.

Catholic Church in Colonial Latin America

A major religious, social, political, and economic institution that influenced everyday life.

Church's Economic Role

The Church became one of the wealthiest colonial institutions and an important economic force alongside trade and mining.

Source of the Church's Wealth

Charity from the faithful and people's desire for salvation.

Christianity and Indigenous Culture

Indigenous people adopted Christianity but often blended it with their existing cultural beliefs and traditions.

Centralized Control

Power concentrated in a central authority, such as a king, national government, or Church hierarchy.

Local Control

Power exercised by individual communities and local leaders over their own affairs.

Church Control Before Independence

Spanish and Portuguese monarchs claimed authority over the Church, while local bishops and communities also exercised influence.

Church Control After Independence

The Papacy gained greater control over the Catholic Church after the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies lost their colonial authority.

Liberalism and the Church

Liberals often supported separating Church and state, although some wanted the government to control the Church more directly.

Conservatism and the Church

Conservatives generally wanted to preserve the Church's central role in society and the nation.

Why the Church Became a Political Target

Its wealth, land, and influence made it an important institution for governments seeking to reduce or control its power.

Central American Independence

Central America gained independence from Spain following the Mexican War of Independence, which lasted from 1810 to 1821.

United Provinces of Central America

A republic formed by former Central American provinces that declared independence from Mexico in 1823 and dissolved by 1840.

Why Central America Broke Apart

Civil wars, Liberal-Conservative tensions, regional divisions, and a cholera outbreak in the 1830s weakened the federation.

Effects of Central American Independence

The region experienced political instability, civil wars, disease, shifting alliances, and changing national boundaries.

Panamanian Independence from Spain

Panama declared independence from Spain on November 28, 1821, and voluntarily joined Gran Colombia.

Panama's Separation from Colombia

Panama became independent from Colombia on November 3, 1903, with U.S. naval support preventing Colombian troops from suppressing the rebellion.

Panama Canal Agreement

After separating from Colombia in 1903, Panama granted the United States rights to build and control the Panama Canal.

Belizean Independence

Belize gained independence from the United Kingdom on September 21, 1981.

Belize's Name Change

The territory changed its name from British Honduras to Belize in 1973 to reclaim its identity and honor its Indigenous Maya heritage.

May Revolution of 1810

The revolution in Buenos Aires that removed the Spanish viceroy on May 25, 1810, and established the Primera Junta.

Primera Junta

The local governing body established in Buenos Aires after the May Revolution of 1810.

Argentine Independence

Argentina formally declared independence from Spain on July 9, 1816, at the Congress of Tucumán.

Causes of Argentine Independence

Spanish political control, exclusion of Creoles from power, restrictive trade policies, economic frustrations, and Enlightenment ideas.

José de San Martín

A major Argentine independence leader who helped liberate Argentina, Chile, and Peru through military campaigns.

Battle of San Lorenzo

A 1813 battle that was an important early military achievement for José de San Martín.

Manuel Belgrano

An Argentine lawyer, economist, and general who helped lead the independence movement, created the Argentine flag, and supported education and economic reform.

Congress of Tucumán

The congress that formally declared Argentina's independence from Spain on July 9, 1816.

Unitarians

Argentines who favored a centralized government based in Buenos Aires.

Federalists

Argentines who supported regional autonomy and greater power for individual provinces.

Why Argentina Struggled After Independence

Internal divisions, civil wars, economic instability, and threats from foreign powers made it difficult to build a stable nation.

Martín Miguel de Güemes

An Argentine general who used guerrilla warfare to defend northwestern Argentina against Spanish royalist forces.

Gauchos

Local rural people, including farmers and ranchers, who fought under Güemes for independence.

Infernales

The army led by Martín Miguel de Güemes, composed largely of gauchos.

Güemes's Military Strategy

He used knowledge of the terrain, ambushes, rapid movement, and hit-and-run attacks to weaken larger Spanish forces.

Why Güemes Was Important

His forces kept Spanish royalists from gaining control of northwestern Argentina and helped protect the independence movement.

Güemes's Legacy

Argentina commemorates him with a national holiday on June 17.

Brazilian Independence

Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822 through royal politics and negotiations rather than a prolonged revolution like many Spanish American movements.

Maria Leopoldina of Austria

An educated Austrian archduchess who became Brazil's first empress and played an important behind-the-scenes role in independence.

Dom Pedro I

The Portuguese prince who remained in Brazil, publicly declared independence, and became the first emperor of Brazil.

Why the Portuguese Royal Family Moved to Brazil

The royal family relocated to Brazil in 1807 to escape Napoleon's invading forces in Portugal.

Maria Leopoldina's Role

She supported Brazilian independence, worked with political advisers, and encouraged Dom Pedro to resist Portugal's attempts to regain control.

Dia do Fico

The January 9, 1822, event when Dom Pedro announced that he would remain in Brazil instead of returning to Portugal.

José Bonifácio de Andrada

A political adviser who worked with Maria Leopoldina in support of Brazilian independence.

Grito do Ipiranga

Dom Pedro's famous declaration of Brazilian independence on September 7, 1822, associated with the words "Independence or Death!"

Maria Leopoldina's Decree

On September 2, 1822, Leopoldina signed a decree of independence while serving as Regent and sent it to Dom Pedro.

Brazil's Form of Government After Independence

Brazil became an independent empire under a monarch rather than a republic.

Why Brazilian Independence Was Different

The Portuguese royal family's presence in Brazil allowed independence to develop through royal leadership, court politics, and negotiations.

Tension in Brazil's Royal Family

The royal couple had to balance their loyalty to European royal traditions with the need to protect Brazil's political independence.

Latin America's Colonial Social Hierarchy

Peninsulares ranked above Creoles, followed by mixed-ancestry groups, Indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans.

Why Creole Elites Wanted Independence

They wanted greater political power and freedom from Spanish rule, but many did not want to destroy the social hierarchy that benefited them.

Encomienda

A colonial labor system that relied on Indigenous labor and helped extract wealth from colonized populations.

Limpieza de Sangre

The idea of "purity of blood," which treated European ancestry as a sign of superiority.

Why Independence Did Not Create Full Equality

Political power often shifted from Spanish-born elites to American-born Creole elites while many existing social inequalities continued.

Simón Bolívar's Goal

Bolívar wanted to liberate Spanish American territories and unite the newly independent nations to protect them from foreign intervention.

El Libertador

The title meaning "The Liberator," given to Simón Bolívar for his role in South American independence.

Gran Colombia

A state uniting present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama that Bolívar helped establish.

Congress of Panama

A 1826 meeting organized by Bolívar to encourage cooperation, mutual defense, and diplomatic unity among the new American republics.

Why Bolívar Wanted Unity

He believed divided and weak nations would be more vulnerable to foreign intervention and domination.

Why Gran Colombia Collapsed

Regional rivalries, local elites, geographic challenges, and disagreements over central authority weakened the federation.

Gran Colombia's Dissolution

Gran Colombia broke apart into separate republics by 1830.

Why Latin American Regionalism Is Fragile

Competing national interests, economic inequalities, changing governments, and disagreements about regional cooperation make lasting unity difficult.

Latin America's Postcolonial Worldview

Its history of colonization and foreign intervention encouraged an emphasis on sovereignty, non-intervention, and solidarity among developing nations.

Main Challenge After Latin American Independence

Leaders had to build stable governments and national identities while dealing with regional divisions and inherited social inequalities.