Human Sexuality exam 2 (ch 6, 7, 10, 14, 15)

sex vs gender vs gender identity vs gender expression

Sex: biological sex characteristics (genes, hormones, anatomy) used to assign people to the category of m/f at birth

gender: behavioral, psychological, and social characteristics associated with m/f categories

gender identity: how someone personally defines their own gender

gender expression: how a person communicates their sense of gender to the world

describe the process of sexual differentiation that occurs during prenatal development

At conception: egg provides x chromosome, sperm provides x or y

1st 6ish weeks: all embryos have ovotestis and two sets of ducts and undifferentiated external genital areas

• Mullerian ducts- can become AFAB internal rep organs

• Wolffian ducts- can become AMAB internal rep organs

7wks: XX and XY embryos diverge in development

• XY: SRY on Y chromosome directs gonads to become testes

• XX: gonads continue and become ovaries

8+wks:

• XY: testes secrete AMH; start secreting testosterone; development of wolffian duct and external genitals. Testes descend before birth

• XX: No AMH; develop mullerian ducts into internal structures; no testosterone leads to disintegration of Wolffian duct and development of external genitals. Ovaries descend next to uterus after birth

describe research evidence that suggests prenatal hormone exposure may impact gender identity

Non-human animal studies: changes mating behaviors

people w/ intersex variation often shows differences in gender identity

the size of the BSNT in hypothalamus is related to gender identity and is affected by prenatal hormone exposure

describe some of the issues that arise when comparing sexes/genders on traits

hard to determine innate vs learned behaviors

statistical vs practical significance

statistical: the difference is not due to chance

practical: impact in real life

Gender differences (physiology, aggression, emotion, cognition, sexuality)

physiology: men generally larger. differences make it important to include women in medical research

aggression: males more likely to engage in physical aggression, but equal in social aggression

emotional expression & intensity: women report more emotions; infant boy more expressive and men have higher physiological responses to emotionally stimulating subjects

Cognition: men outperform in spatial tests, women outperform in verbal fluency and grades

Sexuality: men report more fantasies and masturbation and higher number in ideal amount of partners; women more likely to be fluid

Intersex definition and occurance

people who are born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that does not fit typical M/F categories; 1/100 people with variation, and 1/1500-2000 with ambiguous genitalia

4 main types of intersex variations

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): xx chromosomes, but too much androgen; external genitalia is “masculinized” or may be ambiguous

Androgen Insensitive Syndrome (AIS): xy chromosomes, body doesn’t respond to androgens; external genitalia is “feminized”’ may look like a vulva or be ambiguous. Could develop breasts during puberty. Often identify as girls/women

Klinefelter’s Syndrome: extra x chromosome(s): usually assigned male at birth, but have lower testosterone levels

Turner’s Syndrome: missing one chromosome (x0); usually assigned female sex, but often have immature ovaries and lack naturally occurring puberty

idea of how many adult Americans identify as trans vs cis and nonbinary

0.8% of US adults identify as trans (3% of Gen Z)

1% of US adults identify as nonbinary (3% of Gen Z)

Gender dysphoria DSM-V criterium

When a person experiences distress over incongruence of sex and gender

Gender dysphoria recommended treatment (pre and post puberty)

gender affirming care

pre puberty: social transition

starting puberty: hormone blockers

late teens and adults: gender affirming hormones

social transition

only form recommended for kids under puberty; consists of socially passing as desired sex through expression

medical transition

puberty blockers: reversible; has been used for many years for precocious puberty.

gender-affirming hormones: very safe, though some changes not reversible; teens and adults

surgery: 18+ typically- top surgery, FFS, bottom, etc

John Money’s research

Defined Love Maps as: Developmental representation or template in the mind and in the brain depicting the idealized lover and the idealized program of sexual and erotic activity projected in imagery or actually engaged in with that lover

• acquired via genetics and environment

• language = learning of who and how to love

biological perspective of gender & gender differences

prenatal hormones: enzyme associated with adrenal glands may impact gendered characteristics

evolutionary adaptation

social constructivist perspective of gender & gender differences

perspective of gender is based on social construct built over time by historical and cultural traditions and histories

social learning perspective on gender & gender differences

social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the behavior of others

cognitive perspectives on gender & gender differences

Piaget - established that all children progress through specific patterns of cognitive development, which is then applied to gender through predictable stages of conceptualization

difficulty of determining frequency of different sexual orientations

unsure what to measure (fantasies, behaviors, chosen labels, etc)

exists on a continuum

kinsey scale

idea that sexual orientation exists on a continuum, and people are rarely 100% straight or gay

klein scale vs kinsey scale

klein is an extension of kinsey; states that sexual orientation includes more than just behavior and isn’t static

prevalence of LGBTQ identities in US and comparisons between women and men, generations, etc

9% of people self-identify;

steady increase over the last decade, though decrease this past year

younger generations more likely to identify, and bisexuals make up over half all LGBTQ people

women more likely to identify (especially as bi) (10.5% vs 5.6%)

difficulties in determining the cause of sexual orientation

hard to tease apart nature and nurture; complexity of sexual orientation suggests more than one cause

essentialist theories

assumes that homosexuality is caused by innate differences; physiological

potential biological factors in homosexuality

• genetics: no single gene, but definitely a contributor. roughly 35% of variability in men and 19% in women

• brain structures: size and activation of hypothalamus and size difference in corpus callosum

• potentially prenatal hormones

prenatal hormone theory

fetal exposure to higher levels of androgens leads to attraction to females; reverse true regarding attraction to males

• evidence: nonhuman animal studies and women with CAH

sociological theories

sexual orientation is socially constructed; variation exists naturally, but meaning and categories is defined by society

• labeling: adoption of characteristics associated with that label

bem’s exotic becomes erotic theory

• attempts to combine biological and environmental influences

• biology: childhood temperament, which affects gender typicality in activities

• after puberty, what is different (exotic) becomes erotic

state of acceptance for same sex behaviors/relationships around the world

varies globally; acceptance tending to increase, but lower in impoverished and highly religious

correlates with higher/lower levels of acceptance

Lower:

• impoverished

• more religious

Higher:

• younger

• women, though not often a factor

• more education

monosexual

where it is assumed that a person has a static sexual orientation that defines them throughout their entire lifespan

transgenerational vs intragenerational cultures

SSGB between people of different ages vs SSGB between peers

gender conforming vs nonconforming cultures

nonconforming in SSGB defined as if both partners have the same sex/ gender and one partner expresses traits associated with a different sex/gender

extramarital vs contramarital cultures

maintaining heterosexual marriage while engaging in outside SSGB vs where an individual is not expected to or refused to maintain a heterosexual marriage, and instead embraces SSGB relations

fixed vs fluid sexual cultures

SSGB behavior with assumed top/bottom positions where the top is defined as “straight” culturally vs SSGB where partners experience different sexual ranges and both are defined as nonstraight

nazi regime related to LGBTQ

gay/lesbian/trans etc were sent to concentration camps; pink triangled assigned to homosexual/bisexual men and trans women. Most killed

stonewall riots

1969 outside Stonewall Inn, at a gay bar, a police raid took place, and LGBTQ individuals began fighting back, including throwing bricks

gay rights movements

began with the stonewall riots; first marches occured 1970-71

Harvey Milk

first openly gay man to be elected to city government; led campaign to defeat proposition 6, which would have made it illegal for gay and lesbians to be teachers

anti-gay city supervisor Dan White assassinated him afterwards; “twinkie defense”

Lawrence vs Texas

declares that state laws banning gay sex are unconstitutional

Obergefell vs Hodges

legalized gay marriage by Supreme Court

Don’t Ask Don’t Tell

ended in 2011; said that gay and lesbians could not speak openly about their sexual orientation

difficulties in studying childhood sexuality

societal discomfort, children unreliable, often rely on retrospective reports or reports of other adults which are not always accurate

what kinds of research is done regarding sexuality in children

problem driven; mostly directed to teenagers

adolescence and puberty, differences in gender

adolescence: physical, emotional, and cognitive transition between childhood and adulthood

puberty: biological changes resulting in sexual maturity

Females typically begin puberty around 1.5 years earlier

differences in masturbation that occur during puberty

males have sharp increase in masturbation during puberty, while females have steady increase

sexual development in adolescence

First attraction: happens around age 10

Sexual contact:

• “dating activities” in middle school

• 13-15 typical first kisses and potentially petting

• avg age of losing virginity is 17

sexual activity of teens today to teens in the 1990s

Today: less sex with less partners and with more protection

basics of most models of sexual identity development

dichotomous categories model: orientation is binary

Continuum model: Kinsey; sexuality is a continuum

vector model: homosexuality and heterosexuality are independent operative continuums

Klein’s grid: asserts fluidity and can be measured in past/present/idealized future

impact of pop culture, social media, and abstinence-only sexual education on teen sexual behavior

child sexual abuse vs intergenerational sex

CSA: sexual contact between adult and child with the older individual using their dominant power of position to force sexual activity

intergenerational: neutral term to describe sexual activities between an adult/child in the context of a societal norm of a culture

how the US legal system defines sexual abuse

• child is less than 16 and at least 4 years younger than the adult

• adult is older than 13 and at least 4 years older than child

• both are same chronological age, but adult is of more advanced psychological stage of development

frequency of CSA, most likely target and perpetrator

• of those who experience: 24.8% males, 75.2% females

• estimated 20% of all girls and 8% of all boys

• usually done by an adult the child knows; relative of family friend; 59% acquaintances

• 90% males are perpetrators

symptoms of CSA

• delayed, distorted psychosexual development

• stigmatization; feelings of blame, damage, deviance

• betrayal; loss of trust in the world and innocence or goodness

• disempowerment: more susceptible to abuse in the future

• mental health: anxiety and bipolar disorders

evidence-based suggestions for preventing CSA

• talk to children about bodies and sexuality in age-appropriate way

• teaching children what is not okay to be touched

• where to go, who to tell, and what to do in situations where something has happened or when they are uncomfortable

Reiss’s 4 standards of permissiveness

1. abstinence

2. double standard

3. permissiveness without affection

4. permissiveness with affection

Changes in standards of permissiveness over time

Past: abstinence or double standard

Today: permissiveness with affection; sex outside of marriage

Changes in sexual behavior over time

• adults are more likely to be single today

• less sex happening

define hooking up, why research on it can be difficult, and indicate how common/uncommon it is

• brief uncommitted sexual encounters among individuals who are not romantic partners or dating each other

• difficulties in defining it

• broad definition: 60-80% of college students; drops significantly with a more specific definition

effects of hooking up and impact on college students

• typically more positive than negative, though men report feeling more positively than women

• effected by motivation

  • autonomous reasons is not associated with problems, but nonautonomous reasons is

• effected by type of hookup and actions

  • penetrative hookups with someone known less than 24h most likely to lead to regret

• effected by satisfaction

  • orgasm = less regret

• effected by gender

  • women: less likely to orgasm, more likely to face societal shame, greater possibility of negative consequences, etc.

FWB relationships effect and gender differences

• roughly 50% of college students

• gender:

  • men more likely to say sex is primary reason, women more likely to desire emotional connection

  • men want FWB to continue as is, women more likely to want either a relationship or the dissolving of the friendship

• 1/3 aren’t friends after a year

• main component to successful FWB is starting with a strong friendship, communication, and matching expectations/desires

sexual frequency and satisfaction of single people having casual sex to those in committed relationships

• lower sexual satisfaction; particularly true in hetero relationships

• less sex

gender differences in orgasm rates for casual sex and reasons for differences

women have much lower orgasm rates

• less likely to do activities that would increase orgasm rates in casual sex (ie, oral)

• less time to learn how to give pleasure

• US sexual script in which women is not expected to orgasm

• men reporting not caring about partner’s pleasure during casual sex, and women reporting they don’t feel entitled to orgasm in casual sex

neurotransmitters and hormones that increase/decrease when a person is experiencing romantic love

1. Dopamine: increases → activation of reward system and physical/emotional responses

2. Cortisol: increases → “emergency” response

3. Serotonin: decreases → precipitates obsessive controlling tendencies

4. Norepinephrine: increases → intoxication effect

5. Testosterone and estrogen: increase → sexual lust and desire

6. Oxytocin: increase → creates bonding

7. Vasopressin: increases → long term commitment and bonding

three components in sternberg’s theory of love

• intimacy (emotional closeness)

• passion (motivation, sexual desire)

• commitment (cognitive decision)

attatchment style theory

idea that the style of parenting a person received from their primary caregiver during childhood is reflected in how they form and maintain relationships

• secure: strong, stable parenting that encourages exploration. child felt discomfort upon caregiver leaving, but settled in and explored. Happiness upon caregiver returning. Manifests in adult romantic relationships through trust, love, and support. Associated with more satisfying sex lives.

• anxious-ambivalent: smothering or inconsistent parenting, taught that the world was dangerous. child felt extreme distress when left, did not explore, and was angry upon caregiver’s return. Manifests in adult romantic relationships through insecurity and fear of abandonment. Feels needs are never met. More likely to use sex to get closer, or engage in risky/unwanted behavior to please a partner

• avoidant: neglectful or distant parenting, lack of reliance. no concern over being left nor a response when caregiver returned. Manifests in adult romantic relationships through defensiveness, difficulty in emotional intimacy, and may use sex as a tool to avoid emotional intimacy OR avoids sex. Deep desire for connection

cohabitation rates

Increase in the US; 60-70% of couples

cohabitation effect— new vs old research

old: said that it was associated with divorce

• selection effects, attitudes toward marriage become less favorable

new: mixed research

• age differences (younger people are when relationship becomes “serious”, the higher divorce risk)

• no effect on people who get engaged before moving in

• inertia theory: living together and breaking up is hard, so people who would’ve broken up decide to stick it out and end up married

functions that marriage fulfills in a society

• social stability

• property rights and lines of inheritance solidified

• non-blood family bonds

• child-rearing rights

models of marriage

• Institutional: 1700s-1800s

  • practical, traditional, patriarchal; little to do with love or personal fulfillment

• companionate: 1850s-1965ish

  • expectation of marrying for love and companionship due to industrialization; strict gender-based expectations

• Self-expressive: 1965is-now

  • marriage is optional, more flexible, and equitable. Meant to promote personal growth and self-expression

benefits and drawbacks of self expressive model of marriage

benefits: when higher needs are met, marital satisfaction is very high

drawbacks: “suffocation”; fewer marriages can meet them, lower general satisfaction, greater time/energy required but with less cognitive ability

average age of men and women getting married in US and how it’s changed

Age has increased over time. Currently: women 28.6, men 30.2

relationships of same sex couples similarities and differences

Similarities

• similar issues and trajectory of relationship

Differences

• more equitable roles, reports of more positive feelings, more likely to break up (though this is changing in US), and gay men specifically more likely to have sex and engage in CNM

state of same sex marriage in US

legal in all 50 states

social exchange theory

examines rewards and costs; higher rewards than costs is more satisfying

• comparison level: expectations of what kind of relationship you feel you deserve

• comparison level of alternatives: expectation of how likely it is that there is something better out there that is obtainable

• investment theory: satisfaction and stability related to how much time and energy you’ve already invested

equity theory

relationship satisfaction based on the ratio of costs vs benefits for each partner

• exchange: relationships focused on equity moment-to-moment, making sure things are always equal

• communal: focus on bigger picture, figuring equity will be achieved over time through trust and desire of helping partner

maintaining high levels of relationship satisfaction

• positive communication (Gottman’s 5 to 1 ratio)

  • Bids for communication

• regular sex

  • sexual communal strength: willingness to satisfy each other’s needs even when they don’t always align with your desire

• promoting and allowing self expansion

  • self-expansion theory: humans have fundamental need to grow over time

  • achieved through varied and new experiences with partner

consensual non-monogamy vs cheating

CNM: explicit agreements

Cheating: outside of agreements

open relationships vs swinging vs polyamory vs polygamy (polygyny and polyandry)

• Open: one primary relationship, but allow sex outside of it

• Swinging: couples (usually married) agree to exchange partners

• Polyamory: forming intimate relationships with multiple partners

• Polygamy: married to more than one person

  • polygyny: one man, multiple wives

  • polyandry: one woman, multiple husbands

CNM satisfaction and health

• sexually and romantically satisfied

• no greater risk of STI due to higher levels of protection

frequency of divorce in US, changes over the years

• slightly under half

• increasing for older americans

factors correlated with higher likelihood of divorce

• age of woman: pre-25

• number of years married

• education: no college education

• lower income