Sociological Theories of Deviance, Social Stratification, and Race

Key sociological theories and concepts across deviance, social stratification, and race, covering theorists such as Durkheim, Merton, Hirschi, Sutherland, Becker, Goffman, Marx, Weber, Bourdieu, and Du Bois.

Functionalism (Deviance)

Associated with Émile Durkheim; holds that deviance serves important functions, including strengthening social unity, clarifying norms, and encouraging social change.

Structural strain theory

Theory developed by Robert K. Merton stating that deviance occurs when people cannot achieve society's approved goals through legitimate means; Merton developed the five adaptations to strain.

Social control theory

Theory proposed by Travis Hirschi asserting that strong social bonds decrease deviance via four bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

Differential association theory

Theory formulated by Edwin Sutherland positing that people learn deviant behavior through interactions with deviant peers.

Labeling theory

Theory advanced by Howard Becker stating that being labeled deviant can change someone's identity and encourage further deviance.

Stigma

A concept identified by Erving Goffman wherein certain characteristics can cause individuals to be socially devalued or excluded.

Conflict theory (Social Stratification)

Associated with Karl Marx; states that society is divided between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers), and inequality results from struggles over economic power.

Three dimensions of social class

Max Weber's framework establishing that social standing involves more than just money and is composed of wealth, power, and prestige.

Cultural capital and social reproduction

Concept identified by Pierre Bourdieu showing that families pass down knowledge, habits, and advantages that help reproduce social class across generations.

Symbolic interactionism (Social Stratification)

Perspective associated with Erving Goffman emphasizing that clothing, speech, possessions, and behavior communicate social class and status.

Double-consciousness

Concept formulated by W. E. B. Du Bois describing the experience of seeing yourself through your own identity and through the perspective of a society that judges you based on race.