AP psych Unit 4- Social psychology and personality

15-25% weighting

Social psychology

the scientific study of how induviduals think, feel, and behave in a social context

Conformity

the process by which individuals adjust their thoughts, feelings, or behavior to alight with those of a group, as a result of real or imagined peer pressure

Normative social influence

the influence to conform to the positive expectations of others, driven by the desire to be liked or accepted by the group

social norms

unwritten rules that dictate acceptable behavior within a society or group, influencing how individuals act and interact

social comparison

the process of evaluating oneself by comparing with others, often to asses ones abilities, status, or opinions

relative deperavation

a feeling of dissatisfaction or injustice experienced when induviduals compare themselves to others and perceive that they are worse off

upward social comparison

comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be better off or more skilled, which can motivate self-improvement but may also decrease self-esteem

downward social comparison

comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be worse off or less skilled, which can boost self esteem but may also foster complacency

informational social influence

the influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality, often occurring in situations where the correct action or belief is uncertain

obedience

the act of following direct commands, usually from an authority figure, even if they contradict personal beliefs or morals

groups

a set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity

social contagion

the spontaneous, automatic spread of emotions, behaviors, ideas, or mannerisms through a group or network without conscious effort

chameleon effect

unconsciously mimicking others automatically without thought or effort

social facilitation

the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others, typically showing improved performance on simple or well-practiced tasks and worse performance on complex or new tasks

social loafing

the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone

deindividuation

a psychological state where individuals lose their self-awareness and sense of individuality in group settings, often leading to impulsive and deviant behavior

group polarization

when people in a group talk about an idea, they often end up agreeing even more strongly with each other, making their group opinion more extreme

group think

the desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes. Members suppress dissenting opinions, leading to a loss of individual creativity and responsibility

preventing groupthink

proactive strategies used by leaders and organizations to encourage critical evaluation, open dissent, and diverse perspectives

minority influence

the power of one or a few individuals to sway the opinions, attitudes, or beliefs of a larger majority

induvidualism

a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of individual goals, personal independence, and self reliance over group identity or community desires

collectivism

a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the group or community over induvidual goals and desires, prioritizing group cohesion and interdependence

multiculturalism

the view that promotes the acknowledgement and respect of diverse cultural backrounds and traditions, encouraging the coexistence and value of various cultural identities

Interpersonal attraction

all of the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases, fall in love

proximity

the physical closeness of people, the more likely they are to form a relationship/friendship as it increases existing physical attraction

mere exposure effect

liking someone or something occurs because of repeatedly seeing that person or thing (familiarity makes things seem safer and produces positive feelings)

physical attractiveness

people tend to like those whom they find physically attractive ( a key element in romantic relationships, especially in early stages)

halo effect

our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about their character ( e.g., perceiving attractive people as healthier, happier, and more socially skilled)

Matching hypothesis

the tendency to choose romantic partners whose level of physical attractiveness we believe to be equal to our own

similarity

the more similar two people are in attitudes, background, and traits, the more probable it is that they will like each other

Reciprocity of liking

a very strong tendency to like people who show that they like us back (which raises our self-esteem)

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, or whom we associate with rewarding events and goal achievement

intimacy

psychological feelings of closeness, warmth, and emotional ties that one has for another person (not physical but psychological)

passion

the physical aspect of love; the emotional and sexual arousal a person feels toward another person

commitment

the decisions one makes about a relationship and the promise to sustain that relationship over time

passionate love

emotional love that is mostly expressed physically; exciting, intense, and involves absorption in another person, sexual desire, and intense emotion

companionate love

passionate love that has settled into a warm, enduring love comprised of intimacy and commitment, stable with deeper respect and affectionate attachment

consummate love

the most complete and ideal form of love, combining intimacy, passion, and commitment

persuasion

the process of influencing other attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication, often using appeals to reason, emotion, or authority

elaboration likelihood model

a theory explaining that people process persuasive messages in two ways through deep throughful analysis (central route) or superficial cues (peripheral route)

central route of persuasion

persuasion that involves deep engagement with the actual arguments and content of a message leading to durable attitude change

peripheral route of persuasion

persuasion triggered by superficial cues like speaker attractiveness, celebrity endorsements, or emotional imagery rather than logical content

foot-in-the-door technique

a strategy where agreeing to a small initial request increases the likelihood of complying with a larger subsequent request later

door-in-the-face technique

a strategy where a large, unreasonable request is made first knowing it will be rejected, following by a smaller, reasonable request

cognitive dissonance

the psychological tension experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or when actions clash with attitudes, prompting a change in attitude to relieve discomfort

false consensus effect

a cognitive bias where people overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, beliefs, and behaviors

industrial-organizational (IO) phychologists

psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplace environments to improve productivity, employee selection, and organizational culture

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to others who do not wish to be harmed

physical agression

harming or controlling another person through physical damage or the threat of physical force

verbal aggression

communication interned to hurt another person, which can be spoken, written, or drawn

relational aggression

harming others through purposeful manipulation and intentional damage to their social standing or peer relationships

The frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration-caused by being blocked from reaching a goal-creates anger, which can spark aggressive behavior

ethnocentrism

the belief in the inherent superiority of ones own ethnic or cultural group, often accompanied by contempt for other groups

in-group bias

the tendency to favor and extend loyalty to members of ones own group over those in outside groups, leading to preferential treatment

out group homogeneity bias

the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as being much more similar to one another than they actually are

stereotype

a generalized, often oversimplified belief about a particular group of people, which helps reduce cognitive load during social processing

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members, involving negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group or its members

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame when things go wrong, giving people a target for their problems and a sense of control

social trap

situations in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior that harms the larger community

prisoners dilemma

a situation where two parties must choose between cooperation and competition, competitive choices seem beneficial induvidually, but mutual competition results in worse outcomes for both

mirror image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, where each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful while viewing the other side as evil and aggressive

self fulfilling prophecy

a belief or expectation that leads to actions that cause the belief to come true

altrusim

unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others, leading to behavior that benefits others at a personal cost

bystander effect

the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood of any one individual helping decreases

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel less personally responsible for taking action or helping in a situation when others are present, leading to a decreased likelihood of intervention

bystander intervention

actively stepping in the help during an emergency despite the presence of others, breaking the cycle of inaction through direct action, distraction, or delegation

social responsibility norm

the societal expectation that people should help those who need assistance without regard to future exchanges or rewards

contact hypothesis

the principle that bringing members from different conflicting groups together will reduce prejudice and improve positive attitudes under conditions of equal status, non-competition, and institutional support

superordinate goals

shared goals that require cooperation amoung individuals or groups to achieve, which override smaller conflicts and foster collaborative efforts

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT)

a strategy designed to decrease international or group tensions