Personality - Chapter 7 - Trait Theories of Personality: Allport, Eysenck and Cattell

Personality Traits

Traits

An enduring psychological characteristic of an individual; or a type of psychological construct (a “trait construct”) that refers to such characteristics

These are thoughts, feelings and behaviours

It also makes th Emerson distinct from other people

Ex. A person is kind - they are kind family consistently and if you watched them for some time they act kinder tha the typical person (across time and situations)

What does Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell’s theories claim to identify?

Basic dimensions of personality traits (basic characteristics that everyone shares to a greater or lesser degree)

Their theories rely on statistical procedure = factor analysis

Factor Analysis

Statistical procedure used to identify the most basic individual differences in personality traits

Why is trait approach popular in American and British psychology, and recently in Europe?

Methodological sophistication of factor analytic research methods and the consistent research results it yields

Common sense nature of trait theory - the basic units of analysis (*ex, personality traits) are similar to nonscientific “folk” understanding of personality

Was psychology always a field that relied on measurements

No. Theorists such as carl Jung, sigmund freud, and Alfred Adler created many theories but none had measures to verify it

Measurements are very important in present day psychology - there;s even a branch of the field that focuses on it

Raymon Cattell

Founder of trait theory

Focus was to have a theory of personality based on data, reliable numbers that would reveal their structure of personality

Is there a single theorist for trait theory?

No

3 main contributors include: Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck

There are many theorists but their contributions have much in common

What terms do we wusually use to describe people

Commonly use personality trait terms

Words that describe people’s typical style of experience and action

Consider traits to be the major units of personality - they think it central to personality

Personality trait

Consistent styles of behaviour feelings or thought

Ex. Saying someone is kind = faulty consistently they act in a kind manner and is play kind thoughts and feelings

If you observed them over time across situations they would be distinctly kind - more kind than average

What are the 2 things trait terms must consist of

Consistency and distinctiveness

Consistency

Regularity in the behaviour

The person acts in a way that is described by the trait

Are traits consistent across all contexts

No. They are expressed in types of social contexts

Ex. You would expec a person to be sociable in social situations but you wouldn’t expect them to be social with inanimate objects

Distinctiveness

Psychological characteristics that differentiate people from each other

What makes trait theory different from other theories

You’re picking one view of the person

The core feature of a person is consistent - consistently “kind”, “aggressive” - this trait is what the person is like - through all the different situations there’s a consistent personality in there - endures time and place

Other theories look at variety

Psychodynamic - looks at variable behaviours (ex. Oediipus complex - different behaviour towards each parent)

Behaviourist - behaviours vary depending on the reinforcement

Personal construct theory + social-cognitive theory - cognitive structure that explains behaviour variability across situations

Evolutionary - mental modules that are domain linked

Does trait theory facilitate measurement

Yes it does

To learn about people, you measure their typical behaviour and emotional tendencies

How trait theories view personality science

Emphasis on measurement (it depends on it)- this is the first step - establishing valid and reliable measurements of personality traits - it constrains and determines theories

Focuses on correlation compared to experimental - experiments focus on change

How trait constructs serve scientific functions

Description

Prediction

Explanation

Description - scientific function

Trait constructs are used descriptively (describes how a person is) this is the critical first step before any scientific endeavour

Trait theorists provide the descriptive facts that science uses to then be explained by a theory

These descriptions are not been to be individualistic but they from descriptions in which all/anyone can be described

Taxonomy

the practice and science of classifying, naming, and describing things or organisms into organized, hierarchical groups based on shared characteristics and relationships = personality taxonomy

Personality/trait taxonomy

Clarifying people according to their characteristic - average experience and action

Prediction

Measures of individual differences can commonly predict important life outcomes (ex. Personal environments - how they clean their room, health outcomes, job performance, voting preferences, etc)

Explanation

Some theories think the trait can explain people’s behaviours

Ex. Because the person is high on consciousness, they show up to class early - some try to validate these explainations using biological bases - only some theorists believe this - there’s not only one trait theory - it’s a accumulation of various beliefs/assumptions

Basic assumptions of trait theorists

People possess broad dispositions (descriptions) - consistent behaviour

A direct correspondence between a. Persons trait-related actions and their possession of that trait (ex. If a person reports high anxiety - then she’s high for a trait of anxiety, or if a person acts in an extrovert manner than they are high in extroversion - different than psychodynamic - you act the opposite of how you feel to get a goal (to get people to like you or to not castrate your penis)

Human behaviour and personality can be organized in a hierarchy (ex. Eysenck)

Gordon W. Allport - Trait Theory (Harvard University)

Known more for the issues he raised and the principles he promoted compared to actual theories

He emphasized healthy and organized aspects of behaviour compared to psychodynamic focus on conflicts and psychological distress - both an intellectual and personal contrast

Focused on traits because an important aspect of personality theories - traits = basic units of personality

Allport’s view on personality traits

They originate in the nervous system

Traits are generalized personality dispositions that account for regularities in a person’s functioning across situations and time

Allport: 3 properties of traits

Frequency, Intensity, and Range of Situations

Ex. If a person is very submissive they were frequently be very submissive across many iterations

How Allport + Odbert defined traits

Generalized and personalized determining tendencies - consistent and stable modes of how a person adjusts to their environment

How Chaplin, John, and Goldberg replicated Allports + Odbert

Personality descriptors are in 3 categories: traits, states, and activities

Ex. A person may be gentle throughout their lifetime (trait) but an infatuation (internal state typically doesn’t last and even the most enjoyable carousing (activity) comes to an end

Different kinds of traits - Allport

Cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary dispositions

Cardinal trait - Allport

A disposition so pervasive and outstanding in a person’s life that every act is traceable to its influenced

Ex. An authoritarian person that sees everything in black & white

Central traits - Allport

Dispositions that cover a more limited range of situations than is true for cardinal traits

Ex. Honesty, kindness, assertiveness

Secondary dispositions - Allport

Least conspicuous generalized and consistent traits

(People possess traits with varying degrees of significance and generality)

(Conspicuous = an adjective that means very easy to see, obvious, or standing out enough to attract attention)

Allport - are traits expressed in all situations

No, Allport understands that the trait being expressed is situation dependent

Ex. The most aggressive person will tone it down if in a situation that calls for non agressive behaviour, or an introverted person will act extravertedly is needed to

A trait is what a person does generally over many situations not what will be done in any one situation

Traits explain consistent behaviour but it’s important to know the situation to explain behaviour variability

Functional Autonomy - Allport

He also focused on motivation processes (not just stable traits)

Allport’s concept that a motive may become independent of its origins; in particular, motives in adults may become independent of their earlier basis in tension reduction

Ex. What originally began as an effort/motivation to reduce hunger or hunger can become a source of pleasure and motivation in its own right)

What used to be extrinsic and instrumental can become intrinsic and impelling in adulthood - serve self-image (self-ideal)

Differs from Freud (adult behaviour in terms of childhood drives that stayed throughout adulthood)

Idiographic Research - Allport

Focused on the uniqueness of individuals - differs than other trait theorists (adopt nomothetic procedures - lots of people are described in common/universal sets of personality traits)

Idiographgic studies focuses on individuality because doing that can help you learn about people generally

Ex. A lot fo his research was on a bunch of letters from one woman to understand her personality

Comments of Allport

Great thoughts but empirically limited - little research was done on it

Do trait theorists largely focus on traits that all humans share?

No, they typically focus on traits that differentiate people, there’s little discussion on abilities that all humans possess

There are traits that all humans share (ex, capacity to use language or to consciously reflect on oneself)

How trait theorists view experiments

At first they didn’t find it necessary because traits were set in stone (rigid) - no need to manipulate situations to see if there’s a change because personality cant change - they relied solely on correlations to predict behaviour (ex. They would measure how worried people are and predict future behaviour from that)

Modern psychology is finding this to not the case - personality traits naturally change and evolve throughout someone’s life

This now opens the door to experimentations - instead of jsut observing people they can use interventions, strategies or exercises to alter trait levels and improve psychological outcomes

Key focus before was solely measurement (since traits were rigid) now the focus is looking on how to internationally shift traits

Circular explanations

Eysenck noted that without the use of biology to explain traits , trait explanations would be circular - you would be using the same word to describe and explain behaviour

Ex. Saying your friend is sociable (describe) if asked to explain her behaviour you would say she acts social because she has the trait of sociability - you only know this because you’ve seen it - adding biology goes beyond just the use of words and observations

Superfactor - Eysenck

A higher order or secondary factor representing a higher level of organization of traits than the initial factors from factor analysis

Introversion

In Eysenck’s theory, one end of the introversion–extraversion dimension of personality characterized by a disposition to be quiet, reserved, reflective, and risk avoiding

Extraversion

In Eysenck’s theory, one end of the introversion–extraversion dimension of personality characterized by a disposition to be sociable, friendly, impulsive, and risk taking.

Neuroticism

In Eysenck’s theory, a dimension of personality defined by stability and low anxiety at one end and by instability and high anxiety at the other end.

Anxious, depressed, shy, and moody

Does eysenck’s system capture individual differences identified in ancient times?

Yes

The Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen proposed 4 basic personality types

Greek: 4 basic personality types

Melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric, and sanguine

This can also be represented in which people fall along introversion (I), extraversion (E), and stable/unstable dimensions (N)

Melancholic

Moody, anxious, quiet, and unsociable traits

Sanguine

Sociable, outgoing, carefree, and easygoing traits

Eysenck thoughts of Greek’s thoughts of personality

Though their views have been repudiated (rejected) they validly identified important variations amongst people - people of a personality types shared many personality traits

Since these variations were present then and today shows that there are fundamental features of human nature with a biological basis that transcends time and place

Eysencks 3 factor of personality traits

P, E, N

Psychoticism (abnormal behaviour)

Extraversion (introversion and extraversion)

Neuroticism (mental stability - instability)

These are all continuums

Psychoticism

The other 2 dimensions were of normal behaviour - normally apparent - many vary in degree of calm vs anxious, shy vs sociable,

3rd dimension are traits deemed as abnormal - aggressiveness, lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, antisocial behaviour tendencies

How did Eysenck test to see the differences of these traits/factors

Used self-report data

Ask questions in which depending ion the factor you are you would more likely answer yes to that question (ex. Introverts would say yes to I prefer reading than meting new people

He also put lie scale items to out out those who lied

He also have objective tests (ex. The lemon drop test - drop some lemon to see the difference of saliva levels for introverts and exttraverts) - to see if there’s a biological basis

Biological differences between introverts and extroverts

Eysenck notes that it’s due to neurophysiological differences in the brains cortex

Introverts have increased arousal int he cortex therefore they are aroused higher from sitmuli and intense stimuli is too much so they inhibit their behaviour due to the increased arousal

Extroverts are the opposite - they lack in arousal and then seek stimuli increasing events to compensate

There’s evidence that introverts are more influenced by punishments in learning and extroverts are more influenced by rewards

Biological tests comparing E and N

Not much tests have been done

This is in relation to participants seeing environmental stimuli - measured suing fMRI

Eysenck predicted extroverted people would be low in arousal

Tests shows they were low in the cerebellum (motor control and emotion response) but then high in the insula (subjective conscious experience of emotion - contradicted his thoughts)

Neuroticism followed his views - he believed they would show high levels of arousal - it did int he prefrontal cortex - this isn’t he exact region he thought -0 he thought it would be in lower regions (limbic) but high and lower areas are highly interconnected

Facts consistent with Eysnecks biological theorizing for E scores

Identical and fraternal twins show that hereditary play a part for E

The dimension of E amd I ar found cross-culturally, the individual differences are stable overtime, various biological processing (ex, brain activity, heart rates hormone levels, sweat gland activity) correlate with E scores

What does biological Basis show

Individuals differences between I and E are partly hereditary - NOT ALL hereditary (environment does play a fact or one’s biological makeup)

Biological Basis for neuroticism

Eysnick predictied the limbic system (emotional arousal) and their autonomic system (influences bodily arounsal (heart rate, sweat gland activity) would turn on when aroused

Predictied the ANS would be on high control and be hard to calm down (the person would be anxious ands jumpy) research of this was inconsistent but recent brain imagin is promising (shows high levels in prefrontal correct with is highly connected to the limbic system

Biological basis for Psychoticism

Less research

But people are finding it may be to higher levels of testosterone (which is why it may be higher in males) also research is looking at different levels of dopamine - this is interesting as high levels of dopamine is associated with the mental disorder schizophrenia

Social behaviour differences between (I) and (E)

Introverts are more sensitive to pain , become more easily fatigued, excitement interferes their performances, tends to be more careful and slower

Introverts are betetr at school, extroverts tend to drop out more but if dropping out due to psychiatric reasons then its introverts

Extroverts prefer vocations that involve interaction and changes from job routines

Extroverts prefer more aggressive and sexual humour while introverts prefer more subtly or pin jokes

Extroverts are more sexually active in terms of frequency and partners

Extrovert are more suggestible 0- found in a hyperventilating epidemic in England - those who went to thehospital due to hyperventilating and dizziness, and faintin were girls high in extroversion and neuroticism

Extroverts prefer to study in libraries with external stimuli, takes more study breaks and prefers higher noises

Why is (E) so extensively studied?

It’s behaviours are easily observed

Criminals

Tend to be high in (E), (N), and (P)

Eysnecks views of psychopathology

The type of psychological difficulty a person experiences relates to their personality traits and the nervous system functioning associated with those traits

A perosn develops high neurotic symptoms due to their biological and environment that contribute to learning strong emotional reactions to fear producing stimuli

Is therapy worth it if things are hereditary - Eysenck

Yes!

Traits are predisposing elements but that doesnt mean people cant learn/unlearn things

One can achieve a personality style that varies from their original predisposition

Eysenck’s view of biological testing

Each factor was independent of each other so he would have to use different tests for each and they may have corresponded to different areas of the brain

Critique of Eysenck

Measures didnt align with theory - Eysenck said differences came from neural activity but much of his measures were from self-report quizzes which cant tell about the brain but can be inlfiuenced by the socials environment

His theory underestimated complexity of the brain - he though differences would be found in one part of the brain but the brain is highly interconnected

Aoursal also he cant explain performance - ones cognitions -0 their thoughts also have a play

Matthews argument is that personality traits partly reflect a persons beliefs about themselves and the social world