4.1.3 Attachment

Attachment definition

= A 2-way, strong, emotional tie that develops over time between two people, shown in their behavious

The importance of attachment

• Short term: survival, need a protector and provider

• Long term: emotional relationships, gives a template for future relationships

Altricial vs precocial

Altricial = infants are born at a relatively early stage of development e.g. humans

Precocial = animals born at an advanced stage of development e.g. foals can run and walk soon after birth

Reciprocity

• 2-way, something that is mutual

• Caregiver-infant interactions are reciprocal as both respond to each other’s behavioural and emotional signals

• Each elicits are response from the other

• Brazleton et al (1975) described the interactions as a ‘dance’ as it is similar to how one person responds to the other’s movements in a dance

Interactional synchrony

• a simultaneous action

• PCG and infants reflect the actions and emotions of one another, in a coordinated way

• Melttzoff and Moore (1983) - infants as young as 3 days old can imitate the facial expressions of adults so the ability to mirror is innate and aids attachment formation

• Isabella et al observed 30 mothers and found high levels of synchrony associated with a better mother-infant attachment

Animal studies

The learning theory - Dollard & Miller (1950)

The main assumption behind the learning theory is that children become attached to their caregiver because they give them food (Cupboard love)

It includes 2 types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

According to Dollard & Miller, attachment combines the two types.

Classical conditioning - learning by association

Infants learn to associate the feeder with the comfort of being fed, so through classical conditioning, come to find contact with the feeder comforting.

• Food is an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (pleasure)

• To start with, the caregiver is a neutral stimulus who produces no response in the infant

• However, because the caregiver is continually paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food), he/she gradually becomes associated with it until eventually the caregiver alone can produce pleasure

• The caregiver is now a conditioned stimulus and the pleasure she brings is a conditioned response

Operant conditioning - learning by reinforcement

Infants find that certain behaviours (e.g. crying or smiling) bring desirable responses from others (e.g. attention or comfort) and through operant conditioning learn to repeat these behaviours to get the things they want.

• A hungry infant feels uncomfortable creating a drive/urge to reduce the discomfort

Positive reinforcement = infant’s behaviours that encourage the caregiver to give them attention/feed them (reducing hunger), causing pleasure and strengthening the attachment.

Negative reinforcement = the sound of a crying baby is unpleasant for the PSG so the PSG will attempt to stop the baby from crying (social suppressor behaviour) by feeding or comforting, strengthening the attachment.

Skinner Put rats in an operant conditioning chamber where when they pressed a lever they got food but when they tapped a button, they got an electric shock. Specific consequences are associated with a voluntary behaviour

Drive theory - Sears et al (1957)

A hungry infant feels uncomfortable so is driven to reduce that discomfort (drive theory). Food is a primary reinforcer as it directly satisfies hunger and the caregiver is the secondary reinforcer as they are associated with the primary reinforcer.

So, attachment occurs as the child seeks the person who can supply the reward so is motivated to be with them.

Pavlov’s dog

Evaluation of the learning theory of attachment: Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

P: There is counter evidence from human studies which challenges the LT.

EV: Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that infants attach to those who respond most skillfully to them (sensitive responsiveness).

E: Therefore, we can assume that attachment was not formed with an unconditioned stimulus becoming associated with a PSC or any learning involving reinforcement.

L: This is a weakness as it suggests the LT is inaccurate.

Evaluation of the learning theory of attachment: Harlow’s monkeys and Lorenz’s goslings

P: There is counter evidence from animal studies.

E: Harlow found the Rhesus monkeys attached to the cloth mother despite not being fed by her, meaning an essential part of forming attachments is contact comfort, which is completely ignored by the cupboard love theory.

E: Lorenz found goslings imprinted immediately after they hatched, suggesting it is a biological drive rather that exists independently of feeding.

L: This suggests attachment was formed without any feeding meaning the LT is inaccurate.

Evaluation of the learning theory of attachment: The LT ignores other factors that may be more active when forming attachment

P: The LT ignores other factors which may cause attachment.

EV: Isabella (1989) found interactional synchrony and reciprocity majorly contribute to forming attachments.

E: The correlation between these complex behaviours and attachment suggests attachment goes deeper than the cupboard love theory and is not solely based on food. Additionally, the LT suggests the infant is passively shaped by environmental stimuli, but Isabella’s research suggests the infant plays an active and vital role in forming attachments.

L: This is a weakness as it suggests attachment is more complex than simply association between food and the PCG as the LT suggests.

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment

= attachment is an innate process that serves an important evolutionary function.

‘mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins and proteins are for physical health’ - John Bowlby (19651)

• babies are born with innnate behaviours called social releasers

• infants form one main attachment (monotropy)

• the attachments formed provide an internal working model (template of expectations) for future attachments and relationships

• infants need to attach within their critical period or there may be lasting negative consequences

How does Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment explain attachment

• an attachment between a PCG and infant is an example of a behavioural pattern rooted in biology and evolution

• attachment behaviour is programmed into all humans (innate), regardless of culture

• regardless of ethnic or cultural differences, the purpose and function of attachment remains the same: to keep the baby close to the PCG to be kept safe and protected, allowing them to explore and learn in a safe environment (secure base), and to develop a loving and reciprocal relationship to be passed on through generations

Bowlby: Innate and survival

attachment is an innate system acting as a survival advantage, keeping infants safe by ensuring they remain close to a caregiver

Bowlby: Monotropy

He indicated that on particular attachment in different and stronger than any others the infant forms so is central to the child’s development.

The more time spent together, the better.

Bowlby: critical period

He proposed a time when the infant attachment system is active as the infant is maximally sensitive. If an attachment is not formed by this time the child will experience difficulties later in life.

Bowlby: The law of continuity and the continuity hypothesis

The law of continuity = the more constant and predictable a child’s care, the better quality of attachment.

• continuity hypothesis - there is a link between early attachment and later relationships, so poorly attached children will struggle more during both childhood and adulthood while securely attached children will likely form and maintain stable relationships

Bowlby: Social releasers

Bowlby suggested babies are born with innate ‘cute behaviours’ (social releasers) which activates adult’s social interaction, as attachment is a reciprocal process - Brazleton et al (1975) description of a ‘dance‘

Bowlby: internal working model

a mental template, built from our early attachment with our PCG, shapes how we act and what we expect from future relationships

Bowlby: The law of accumulated separation

= having substantial time apart from a PCG risks a poor quality attachment that will disadvantage the child in a range of ways

Evaluation of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment: mixed evidence for monotropy

P: There is mixed evidence for monotropy

EV: Schaffer and Emerson (1964) observed that, while most babies did attach to one person at first, there was a minority who formed multiple attachments at the same time

E: Although first attachments appear to have a particularly strong influence on later behaviour, this may be explained by simply being stronger as it was formed first, so not necessarily different quality.

L: Bowlby’s theory suggests there is a unique quality and importance to the child’s primary attachment which may be inaccurate.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment: support for internal working models

P: research supports the internal working model.

EV: Bailey et al (2007) assessed attachment in 99 mothers and 1yr old babies and they measured the mothers’ attachment to their own PCG and the quality of attachment of their babies. They found mothers who had a poor attachment to their PCG were more likely to have a low quality attachment with their infants.

E: So, the mothers’ own experiences when she was an infant effects how her own baby develops.

L: This supports Bowlby’s idea that mothers’ ability to form attachments to their babies is influenced by their internal working model.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment: support for social releasers

P: There is evidence that supports social releasers

EV: Brazelton et al (1975) observed babies trigger interactions with adults using social releasers. Researchers then instructed the PCG to ignore the social releasers (‘still-faced’ experiments) which caused the baby to become increasingly distressed. Some curled up and lay motionless.
E: This shows just how significant these interactions are for infants.
L: This illustrates the role of social releasers in emotional development and development of attachment suggests they are important.