PSYC 150 EXAM 2

what are the 3 main assumptions of the biological approach?

personality trait reflect physiological differences, are strongly influenced by genetics, and are rooted in evolutionary history.

what is the proposed sequence connecting evolution to personality?

evolution → genetic makeup → physiological differences → personality

what are the 3 major types of physiological influences on personality covered in lecture?

brain structure and anatomy, neurotransmitters and hormones

what is the main idea of the evolutionary perspective on personality?

some personality tendencies develop because they helped our ancestors survive, reproduce, cooperate or compete

what does it mean for personality trait to be adaptive?

the trait can provide an advantage for survival or reproduction in a particular environment

how can the big five be understood from an evolutionary perspective?

each trait may reflect a system that supported certain functions, such as approaching rewards, caring for others, self-regulation, avoiding danger, or exploring

why aren’t all people extraverted if extraversion can be adaptive?

different trait levels can be advantageous under different conditions. a trait’s benefits may depend on the presence of people with different traits and on the environment

what is frequency-dependent selection?

the advantage of a trait depends on how common or rare it is in the population

why might a rare personality tendency sometimes be advantageous but disadvantages when common?

a rare tendency may help an individual exploit an opportunity, but if many people have it, its benefits may disappear or it may harm the group

what is the main limitation of evolutionary explanations of personality?

many explanations are difficult to test directly and can become speculate stories about why a trait might have evolved

why is animal personality research useful?

it helps researchers study biological influences, early experiences, evolution across generations, animal welfare, and practical animal selection or training

what is the central finding of cross-species personality research?

some personality-like traits occur many species, although they may be expressed or labeled differently from human traits

which big five traits tend to be most evident across different species?

extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness, although similar traits may be called dominance, vigilance or cooperation

which big five traits is most clearly identified in chimpanzees among the examples in lecture?

conscientiousness is identifiable in chimpanzees, our closet living relatives, but is less consistently identified across other species

why is openness difficult to identify across animal species?

openness is usually conceptualized in human-specific ways, making it harder to measure consistently in other species

what is the overall takeaway from evolutionary and animal personality perspectives?

biology and evolutionary history may help explain personality, but adaptation depends on context, and evolutionary explanations have important limitations

what does the frontal cortex help support?

planning and self-control

what is the amygdala associated with?

emotion and threat detection

what can brain lesions or damage help researchers investigate?

how changes to specific brain structures relate to changes in thought, feeling and behavior

what was Phineas Gages relevance to studying personality and the brain?

his brain injury became a famous example of how damage to the brain can be associated with changes in behavior and personality

what is brain stimulation used to investigate?

how activating particular brain regions can affect behavior or psychological processes

what do fMRI and EEG help researchers study?

brain activity. fMRI measures changes associated with brain activity,, while EEG records electrical activity at the scalp

which big five trait is associated with the approach or reward-sensntivity system?

extraversion

which big five trait is associated with the care system?

agreeableness; the system relates to bonding, caregiving, and understanding others

which big five trait associated with the self-regulation system?

conscientiousness; it involves standards, control and carrying out planned actions

which big five trait is associated with the avoidance or vigilance system?

neuroticism; it is associated with sensitivity to punishment or threats

which big five trait has the least clearly identified neural correlates in the lecture

openness to experience; associated with exploration and interests

why is is misleading to show each personality trait as located in one specific brain region?

personality is not located in a single spot. multiple brain regions work together, and all regions have some activity

what do comparisons of brain activation levels generally show?

differences in average activation between groups or conditions, not complete or precise map of personality

why can brain-imaging studies produce false positives?

testing many comparisons increases the chance of finding apparently significant results by chance, especially in small samples

what is dopamine associated with?

reward responsiveness and the approach or ‘go’ system

what tendencies are associated with higher dopamine levels?

more exploratory behavior, positive emotion, sociability, novelty-seeking and activity

what is serotonin associated with?

the avoidance or ‘stop’ system; the notes link lower serotonin with depression, anxiety and obsessive worrying

what do SSRIs do?

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors increase serotonin availability by blocking its reuptake and are used to treat conditions such as depression and anxiety

which big five traits are linked to dopamine and serotonin?

dopamine is associated with extraversion. serotonin is associated with neuroticism through its discussion of avoidance and negative affect

what is cortisol?

a glucocorticoid hormone released by the adrenal cortex that is involved in the bodys stress response

what can chronically HIGH cortisol be associated with?

anxiety and depression

what can chronically LOW cortisol be associated with?

an insufficient response to danger

which big five trait is associated with HIGHER cortisol ?

neuroticism

what are examples of behaviors that may support survival or reproduction?

choosing mates, caring for offspring, competing for resources and cooperating with others

what are the proposed adaptive benefits of extraversion?

seeking mates, pursuing social rank and competing for resources

what are the proposed adaptive benefits of agreeableness?

bonding with mates, caregiving and caring for offspring

what are the proposed adaptive benefits of concientiousness?

following social standards, exercising discipline and persisting toward a goal

what are the proposed adaptive benefits of neuroticism?

detecting and avoiding danger through greater sensitivity to threats

what are the proposed adaptive benefits of openness?

exploration, learning and creativity

what is an important caveat about adaptation in modern environments?

a trait that was useful in one ancestral or ecological context may not be useful in every modern context

what is the first major limitation of evolutionary explanations?

that it can be difficult to falsify or test empirically, particularly when explanations speculate backward from present day traits

why might not every behavior have an adpative adavntage?

some behaviors may be harmful, neutral or unintended by products of other adaptations; for example walking upright may have side effects such as back pain

what is the second major limitation of evolutionary explanations ?

reproductive instinct is not universal; people do not necessarily try to maximize reproductive success or have as may children as possible

what is the third major limitation?

biology cannot easily be isolated from society and ecological context; a trait usefulness depends on the circumstances

what is the fourth major limitation?

evolutionary arguments can justify existing social systems or refiy group differences, treating stereotypes as natural or inevitable

what is the fifth major limitation?

these explanations can underestimate human flexibility and our ability to overcome impulses or change behavior

what did chopik and weaver (2019) study?

owners reports of the personalities and behavioral histories of 1,681 dogs across 50 breeds, along with the owners own personality

how does dog personality stability tend to change with age?

dog personalities tend to become more stable with age

what did the dog study suggest about owners and their dogs?

some personality similarities were reported, for example more extraverted owners tend to rate their dogs as more excitable and active

what are the five dimensions of the feline five ?

neuroticism, dominance, impulsiveness, agreeableness and extraversion

what does feline neuroticism describe?

insecurity, anxiety, fear of people, suspicion and shyness

what does feline dominance describe?

bullying, dominance and aggression toward other cats

what does feline impulsiveness describe?

impulsive, erratic or reckless behavior

what does feline agreeableness describe?

affectionate, friendly and gentle behavior toward people

what does feline extraversion describe?

activity, vigilance, curiosity, inquisitiveness, inventiveness and apparent intelligence

what personality differences are often reported between dog people and cat people?

dog people tend to score higher in extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness; cat people tend to score higher in neuroticism and openness

what did the personality survey find about pet owners vs non-owners?

no significant big five differences were found between pet owners and non-owners

what did the survey find about cat owners vs dog owners?

no significant big five differences were found between cat and dog owners

what traits helped explain spider behavior after web damage?

boldness and aggressiveness: bolder spiders were more likely to attempt taking over a neighbors web, while more aggressive spiders were more successful once they attempted it.

a brain image shows activity in a region associated with faer. can researchers conclude that neuroticism is located entirely in that region? why or why not?

no. personality emerges from interacting brain systems. brain activations images show averages and do not establish that a whole trait is located in one region

a researcher tests hundreds of brain regions in a small sample and reports one significant result. what caveat should you consider?

multiple comparisons increase the likelihood of false positives, particularly in small samples.

a student says ‘extraversion is adaptive so introverts are less evolved’ what is wrong with this reasoning?

adaptiveness depends on context and trait frequency. different levels can be advantageous under different circumstances; introversion is not evidence of being less evolved

in a population where almost everyone cooperates, a person who rarely cooperates may sometimes gain resources by exploiting others. which concept could explain this?

frequency dependent selection; the benefit of a trait depends on how common it is

how image nearly everyone exploits others and cooperation collapses. how does this illustrate frequency dependent selection?

a strategies advantage can disappear when it becomes common. a tendency that benefits a few may harm individuals or the group if widespread

a researcher argues that a personality trait must gave evolved because it exists today, but offers no way to test the explanation. which limitation does this illustrate?

the difficulty of falsifying or empirically testing speculative evolutionary explanations

a person claims that traditional gender roles are biologically inevitable because men hunted and women gathered in ancestral societies, which limitation is illustrated?

evolutionary explanations can justify social systems and reify group differences by presenting stereotypes as natural or inevitable

a persons experiences an urge to compete but choose to cooperate because of their values and social expectations. which limitation of evolutionary thinking does this demonstrate?

it may underestimate human flexibility and the ability to overcome innate urges

a dog becomes less excitable as it ages and its behavior becomes more predictable, which finding from the lecture does this fit?

dog personalities tend to become more stable with age

an owner who is very active describes their dog as especially energetic. what findings might this reflect?

reported similarities between dog and owner personalities; more extraverted owners rated their dogs as more excitable and active. the association does not prove the owner caused the dogs behavior

a shelter wants ti identify dogs suitable for therapy work. how could animal personality research help?

it can help assess traits and behavior relevant to a role, improving the match between an animal, its work and its handler or environment

a researcher observes that bold spiders are more likely to try taking over another spiders web, but aggressive spiders are more likely to succeed. which trait predicts attempt vs success?

boldness predicts the likelihood of attempting the takeover; aggressiveness predicts success one the attempt is made

a study find no significant big five differences between cat owners and dog owners, can we conclude that all cat and dog owners have identical personalities?

no. a nonsignificant group difference does not mean every individual is identical; it means the study did not find a statistically significant difference in average big five scores

a researcher identifies vigilance on one species and neuroticism in humans, why might these be compared cautiously?

some broad personality like dimensions appear across species but the traits may be expressed and measured differently

a student claims that because dopamine is linked with reward seeking, dopamine alone determines extraversion, what the best correction?

dopamine may be one physiological correlate of extraversion but personality is complex and is not determined by one neurotransmitter or one brain system

what re the 3 theoretical approaches reviewed in lecture?

trait, biological and psychodynamic approaches

what is the main idea of the psychodynamic approach?

personality is shaped by early life experiences and by how people resolve unconscious, internal psychological conflicts

what are the 5 basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

1. Psychological determinism. 2. Importance of the unconscious. 3. Intrapsychic conflict. 4. Importance of early childhood experiences. 5. Defense mechanisms.

What is psychological determinism?

The idea that behavior is not random; it is influenced by conscious and unconscious drives, needs, wishes, and fears.

Why is the unconscious important in Freud's theory?

Unconscious urges, especially sexual and aggressive urges, can influence behavior even when people are unaware of them.

What is intrapsychic conflict?

Conflict between different psychological forces, especially the id, ego, and superego.

What are defense mechanisms, and what purpose do they serve?

Psychological strategies, often unconscious, that help people manage internal conflict and reduce anxiety.

How does the psychodynamic approach explain individual differences in personality?

People develop different patterns of defenses and ways of resolving internal conflicts, producing different personality tendencies.

How does the psychodynamic approach differ from the trait approach?

The trait approach describes relatively consistent characteristics and individual differences; the psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious motives, internal conflicts, defenses, and early experiences.

What is Freud's view of dreams?

Dreams provide a route to the unconscious, allowing suppressed wishes to express themselves.

What is the central idea behind Freud's id, ego, and superego?

Behavior reflects the interaction and conflict between impulses, reality-based regulation, and internalized moral standards.

Why are early childhood experiences important in the psychodynamic approach?

They are thought to establish foundations for later personality, relationship patterns, and ways of coping.

What is attachment theory's connection to personality development?

Early relationships with caregivers help shape internal working models that can influence later relationships, including romantic attachment.

What is the overall takeaway from the psychodynamic approach?

To understand personality, examine not only observable traits but also unconscious processes, internal conflicts, defenses, and early relationships.

What does the trait approach assume about personality?

Traits are the building blocks of personality, are relatively consistent across time and situations, and are partly biologically based.

What does the biological approach emphasize?

Personality tendencies are rooted in physiology, genetics, and evolutionary history

What is the psychodynamic approach especially concerned with?

Unconscious processes, early life experiences, and how individuals resolve intrapsychic conflicts.

What happened during Gordon Allport's encounter with Freud?

Allport described a boy on a tram who appeared to have a dirt phobia. Freud asked whether the boy was Allport himself, prompting Allport to feel uncomfortable and guilty.

Was the little boy in Allport's story actually Allport?

According to Allport, no. He maintained that the boy was not him, although Freud interpreted the story as potentially revealing something about Allport.

Why is Allport's encounter with Freud important for understanding their theoretical differences?

It illustrates Freud's tendency to interpret stories as expressions of unconscious motives, whereas Allport emphasized conscious, observable traits and individual differences.