SOC 3200 book notes

What is the primary focus of social psychology?

The systematic study of people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in social contexts.

What methods do social scientists use to test theories?

Observation, surveys, experiments, and other forms of research.

What is macrosociology?

The study of social phenomena at a large scale, including structural functionalism and conflict theory.

Define microsociology.

The study of individual interactions and their effects on social psychological processes.

What is meso-level data analysis?

Analysis conducted at the group or organizational level.

Who is associated with psychoanalysis?

Sigmund Freud, who emphasized the role of conscious and unconscious processes.

What does symbolic interactionism study?

How people negotiate the meaning of social life during their interactions.

What are the three core principles of symbolic interactionism according to H. Blumer?

1. Meanings arise through social interaction. 2. People use meanings to guide behavior. 3. People interpret interactions.

What is the sociological imagination?

The ability to see personal lives in the context of larger societal structures.

What is ethnomethodology?

A theory and method of inquiry that examines how individuals construct social reality.

What are breaching experiments?

Methods of violating social order to assess how people construct social reality.

Define agency in sociological terms.

The ability to act and think independently from social constraints.

What is the social construction of reality?

The process by which symbols and language give meaning to objects and people.

What is framing in social psychology?

The process by which individuals transform the meanings of situations using cognitive structures provided by society.

What are social scripts?

Series of appropriate thoughts, feelings, and behaviors expected in a given social frame.

What are social forces?

Ways in which society compels individuals to act according to external norms.

What is cognitive sociology?

The study of how society influences thinking processes.

What defines small groups in social psychology?

Groups of two or more individuals, typically between 2 and 20, engaging in direct interactions.

What is the difference between primary and secondary groups?

Primary groups are close relationships (family, friends), while secondary groups are formed for specific goals (coworkers, teammates).

What is a hypothesis in social research?

A specific, testable prediction about how variables will relate.

What is the independent variable (IV)?

The variable expected to cause or produce a change.

What is the dependent variable (DV)?

The variable expected to change as a result of the independent variable.

What does operationalization mean?

Turning an abstract theoretical concept into something measurable.

Give an example of operationalization.

Measuring stress by the number of negative life events or a person's rating of role strain.

What is the measurement of stress?

The number of negative life events or a person's rating of role strain.

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

Population is the larger group researchers want to understand; sample is the smaller group actually studied.

What is a probability sample?

A sample where participants are systematically selected to represent the population.

What is a random sample?

Participants are randomly selected from the population.

What is a convenience sample?

A sample using people who are readily available.

What is a cluster sample?

The population is divided into clusters, and participants are selected from those clusters.

What does reliability in research refer to?

Whether a research method produces consistent results when used repeatedly.

What does validity in research refer to?

Whether the research actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

What is qualitative research?

Research focusing on depth and meaning rather than numerical measurement.

What is field research?

Research where observers directly observe people's behavior in a natural setting.

What is participant observation?

The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

What are in-depth interviews?

Interviews where researchers ask open-ended questions and allow participants to explain their experiences.

What is a focus group?

Semi-structured interviews with small groups, usually around 6-15 people.

What is quantitative research?

Research using numbers and statistical measurement to study thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

What is statistical significance?

Helps determine whether a relationship observed in a sample is likely to represent a real relationship in the population.

What is the purpose of random assignment in experiments?

To make groups similar before the experiment, helping to determine if the independent variable caused the observed change.

What is mixed-method research?

Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in research.

What is social stratification?

The ways individuals or groups are ranked in society based on power, status, prestige, resources, and opportunities.

What are ascribed and achieved statuses?

Ascribed status is assigned at birth; achieved status is earned through actions.

What is symbolic interactionism?

A perspective examining how people construct and reproduce inequality through everyday interactions.

What is 'othering'?

A process where higher-status people define lower-status people as inferior.

What is 'doing gender'?

The idea that gender is produced and performed through everyday behavior.

What is defensive othering?

When lower-status people respond to negative stereotypes by presenting themselves as exceptions.

What are the five steps in developing a research project?

1. Assess theory and literature, 2. Develop research questions, 3. Choose research methods, 4. Conduct data analysis, 5. Report results.

What are the advantages of qualitative research?

Provides detailed information, studies people in natural environments, and helps understand meanings and experiences.

What are the disadvantages of quantitative research?

May miss the complexity of experiences and oversimplify concepts.

What is a secondary data analysis?

Analyzing data that someone else previously collected.

What is a survey in research?

A method using questionnaires to measure variables.

What does 'doing gender' refer to?

The performance of gender roles and the accountability for those roles in social interactions.

What is 'borderwork' in the context of gender?

Creating social and physical boundaries between boys and girls.

What does 'intersectionality' argue?

That social statuses such as race, gender, and class intersect and create distinct experiences of inequality.

What is the Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment?

A model that outlines the process from social background to occupational status through aspirations, ability, and education.

Define 'social capital'.

The trust, support, information, and resources available through relationships.

What is the difference between direct exchange and generalized exchange?

Direct exchange involves two people exchanging resources directly, while generalized exchange involves a chain of exchanges without immediate reciprocation.

What are diffuse status characteristics?

Social characteristics that apply across many different situations, such as gender, race, age, and education.

What are specific status characteristics?

Characteristics that are relevant mainly in particular situations, like knowledge of a specific subject during a related task.

What is meant by 'status expectations'?

Expectations developed by group members about who is likely to be competent, which can reinforce opportunities for those individuals.

What is the sociological imagination according to Mills?

The ability to understand the relationship between individual experiences and larger historical forces.

Differentiate between 'troubles' and 'issues' in sociology.

'Troubles' are personal matters, while 'issues' transcend local environments and involve broader societal structures.

What is a significant symbol?

A gesture that evokes the same response in the user as it does in those to whom it is directed.

How do symbols transform the human environment?

They expand the scope of the environment and allow for naming and creating things.

What are natural signs?

Signs that occur when the things they represent are present, inherently private and tied to immediate experiences.

What are conventional signs?

Invented signs that are produced and controlled by the organisms that have learned to respond to them, such as language.

What is meant by 'conversation of gestures'?

The initial act of one individual that indicates an impending act and prompts a response from another.

How does language relate to objects in human activity?

Language provides a system to relate objects and allows for the creation of new objects through communication.

What is a social object?

An object created and sustained by coordinated social acts, such as conversation.

Who is George Herbert Mead?

A sociologist whose analysis of the act provides a foundation for symbolic interactionism.

What is the role of concepts in sociology?

Concepts help depict important aspects of reality and link together to form theories about the world.

What is the significance of symbols in communication?

Symbols elicit shared responses among individuals and are essential for organizing human interactions.

What does 'doing difference' imply?

Extending the concept of doing gender to other social categories, highlighting how inequality is reproduced.

What is the relationship between status and power?

Status refers to respect and esteem, while power is the ability to control outcomes or overcome resistance.

What does the term 'self-reinforcing' mean in the context of status expectations?

It refers to the cycle where individuals expected to be competent receive more opportunities to demonstrate their competence.

What is the importance of trust in generalized exchange?

Trust is crucial because the giver may not receive immediate benefits back, relying on future reciprocation.

How do social inequalities manifest in small-group interactions?

Larger social inequalities can influence dynamics and expectations within small groups.

What is the significance of the relationship between history and biography in sociology?

Understanding this relationship helps to contextualize individual experiences within broader societal trends.

What are the four stages of the act according to Mead?

Impulse, Perception, Manipulation, Consummation.

What does the stage of Impulse signify?

It occurs when our existing adjustment or line of activity is disturbed.

What happens during the Perception stage?

We begin to name or designate objects, giving our acts direction.

Define Manipulation in Mead's framework.

It is when we take concrete steps to reach our goal.

What is Consummation in the context of Mead's act?

It is when our original adjustment or line of activity is restored.

What is the core critique Kohn presents regarding social psychology?

It has become overly focused on immediate interactions while neglecting macrosocial structures.

What does Kohn mean by 'The Durkheimian Error'?

It refers to the assumption that social institutions function without human participants.

What is meant by 'Microsocial Drift'?

The preoccupation with face-to-face interactions in social psychology, ignoring broader social structures.

How does Kohn suggest we should approach social structures?

By starting with macrostructures and tracing their effects down to the individual.

What is the 'Fallacy of the Subjectification of Social Structure'?

It is the error of treating social structure as merely a matter of subjective perception.

What does the Thomas Theorem state?

If men perceive situations as real, they are real in their consequences.

What is the significance of job complexity in Kohn's analysis?

It affects multiple psychological dimensions and is determined by one's location within social class systems.

What ethical principle is emphasized in the Nuremberg Code?

All research participation must be voluntary.

What does the Declaration of Helsinki mandate for biomedical research?

It requires careful assessment of risks and benefits, respecting subject privacy.

What is the Common Rule in research ethics?

It mandates institutions receiving federal funds to establish an Institutional Review Board (IRB).

What ethical dilemma arises from divided loyalties in research?

Professional commitments can create conflicts in ethical decision-making.

What is the role of informed consent in research?

Participants must be informed about the nature of the research and agree to participate.

How can new technology impact ethical research?

It raises questions about data privacy, consent for future research, and the use of public data.

What is the core premise of Adler and Adler regarding field research?

Sociologists must adopt social roles within the studied setting, stepping away from academic roles.

What is meant by 'Generalized Structural Impact' in Kohn's work?

Structural conditions affect multiple psychological dimensions simultaneously.

What is the significance of cross-national comparative research?

It prevents theories from being limited to American or Western contexts.