Chemical and Physical Environment

Water Structure

The composition and arrangement of water molecules, including the covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

Hydrogen Bonding

A relatively weak intermolecular force caused by electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged end of one water molecule and the positively charged end of another water molecule.

Water as a Solvent

Water's ability to dissolve at least a little of virtually every substance, particularly substances held together by polar or ionic bonds.

Dissolution of Gases in Seawater

The process by which gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, dissolve in seawater, with solubility and saturation dependent on temperature, salinity, and pressure.

Oxygen Concentrations

The distribution and availability of oxygen in the ocean, influenced by deep water formation, upwelling, and circulation patterns.

Salinity

The total concentration of all dissolved inorganic materials in water, which affects osmosis and diffusion in marine organisms.

Conservative Ions

The most abundant ions in seawater, including chloride, sodium, sulfate, magnesium, calcium, and potassium, which are present in constant proportions and controlled by physical processes.

Average Sea Surface Salinity

The average salinity of the ocean's surface waters, which varies based on evaporation rates, circulation patterns, and riverine discharge.

Temperature in the Ocean

The variation in water temperature throughout the ocean, influenced by solar radiation, latitude, and depth.

Thermal Expansion

The tendency of matter, including water, to change in shape, area, and volume in response to a change in temperature.

Freezing Point of Seawater

The temperature at which seawater freezes, which is lower than the freezing point of pure water due to the presence of dissolved ions.

Light Penetration

The depth to which light can penetrate in the ocean, influenced by water clarity and the amount of material suspended in the water column.