AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Top-Down Processing

Pre-existing knowledge, expectations, etc to interpret incoming sensory data (Perception)

Bottom-Up Processing

Interprets sensory information directly from the environment, starting with basic raw details before building up to a whole perception (Sensation)

Deep Processing

Deep understanding of what something is

Shallow Processing

Focus on physical/surface features

Schema

Framework that organizes our understanding and interpretation

Heuristic

Mental shortcut for problem solving through sinpler thinking

Belief Perserverance

Persistence of beliefs even after they have been discredited

Intuition

Thought that is effortless

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

Overconfidence

Overestimate the accuracy of ones knowledge

Framing

Way an issue is posed

Priming

Activation of certain associations

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that aligns with preexisting beliefs

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield stable results

Validity

Extent to which a test actually measures what it claims

Stereotype Threat

Self confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative sterotype which then affects performance

Gestalt Principles

How the human brain automatically organizes scattered visual.sensory pieces into meaningful wholes

Gestalt Psychologists

Study how the human mind and brain organize sensory information into whole patterns, shapes, and configurations

Binocular Depth Cues

Both eyes working together to judge distance, space, 3D

Perceptual Constancy

Perceive familiar objects as unchanging even when sensory stimuli changes (light, angle, etc)

Perceptual Adaptation

Adjust to a changed environment so that the world still looks normal

Monocular Depth Cues

One eye working to judge distance and depth

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down available problem solutions

Divergent Thinking

Expands number of available problem solutions

Chunking

Grouping pieces of information into large units to improve memory

Serial Position

Recall first (primary) and last (recency) items on a list

Semantic Encoding

Converting words/concepts into memory based on its meaning rather than how it looks/sounds

Auditory Encoding

Converting sounds into a form that your brain can store and recall

Proactive Interference

Old information gets in the way of new

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts old info

Context Dependent Memory

Memory is better when you’re in the same physical environment

State Dependent Memory (Mood Congruence)

Memory is better when you’re in the same mood you learned it in

Retrograde Amnesia

New information interrupts old

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after a brain injury

Source Amnesia

Inability to remember where you learned information but retaining the factual knowledge itself

Emotional Intgelligence

Ability to understand, manage, precieve, and use emotions effectively in oneself and interactions with others

How does emotional intelligence differ from other measures of intelligence?

EQ (Emotional quotient/Emotional intelligence) measures emotional competency and interpersonal skills, understands why one acts the way they do

Achievement Test

Measures what you have already learned

Aptitude Test

Predicts your ability to learn new skills

Reliability

consistency

Vailidity

Accuracy

The Flynn Effect

Steady, generational increase in average global IQ scores

Fluid Intelligence

Solve problems without relying on prior knowledge

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulation of knowledge learned through life

Spearmans Theory

General underlying mental ability that influences all cognitive measures

Cattel-Horn-Carroll Theory

Intelligence is based on the general intelligence (g) factor, with fluid and crystallized intelligence as the bridge to full intelligence considerations

Gardeners Theory

Intelligence is made up of 8 types of intelligence

What is the sequential sequence of events related to an environmental stimulus?

Reflex Arc

1. Environment stimulus (hot stove)

2. Sensory input (brain+spinal cord)

3. Interneurons (receive, process info, determine response)

4. Motor output (movement, mechanics)

Automatic response, requires no concious thinking

Declarative Memories

Long term storage of facts, data, and personal experiences you can recall

Semantic Memories

General factual knowledge, concepts, words, rules about the world

Sensory Memories

Very brief, raw, unprocessed sensory info that lasts for seconds

Procedural Memories

Unconscious, motor/cognitive skills learned thru practice

Stroboscopic Movement

Perciving continuous, fluid motion from a fast series of complete images (movies and flipbooks)

Phi Phenomenon

Perceiving a single moving shape or light between 2 or more stationary points (loading circles)

Implicit memory

Unconscious recall

Explicit memory

Conscious recall

Longitudinal Study

Same people restudied over long period of time

Correlational Study

Measures relationship of 2 unmanipulated variables

Case Study

Recording an individual/group in hope of finding a universal principle

Naturalistic Observation

Behavior in common situations with no control

Survey

Measures self-reported attitudes

Cross-Sectional Study

People if different ages are compared to one another

Double-Blind Procedure

No one knows what’s happening (participant and researcher)

LTP

Strengthening of synapses (the connections between neurons) based on recent patterns of activity.

Accomodation

Eye lens changing its shape to focus images from different distances onto the retina

Adaptation

Eye's receptors becoming less responsive to constant stimuli or adjusting sensitivity when moving between bright and dark lighting conditions