Unit 0 Vocab

Cultural Norms

The shared principles and values that influence the behavior of a group or society.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Hindsight Bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by a person's subjective confidence in their judgments being greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.

Independent Variables

Factors that are manipulated in an experiment to observe their effect on a dependent variable.

Confounding Variables

External factors that can affect the results of an experiment and lead to erroneous conclusions.

Dependent Variables

The outcomes or responses measured in an experiment, which are affected by independent variables.

Random Assignment

A method used to assign participants in a study to different groups in a way that eliminates bias.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, event, or situation to explore complex issues in real-life context.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where an increase in one variable corresponds with an increase in another variable.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where an increase in one variable corresponds with a decrease in another variable.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns and general conclusions.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment without any manipulation by the researcher.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses)

The ability to be disproven by experimental results.

Operational definitions

Clear, precise definitions that outline how variables will be measured or identified in a study.

Replication

The act of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Central tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Variation

A measure of the diversity or spread of a set of values.

Percentile rank

A measure that indicates the relative standing of a value within a distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by adding them all together and dividing by the count of numbers.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the numbers are arranged in ascending or descending order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population.

Positive Skew

A distribution that has a long tail on the right side, indicating that a larger number of values are concentrated on the lower end.

Negative Skew

A distribution that has a long tail on the left side, indicating that a larger number of values are concentrated on the higher end.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different peaks or modes.

Standard Deviation

A measure that quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Regression Towards the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme values in a data set tend to be closer to the mean on subsequent measurements.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population used for statistical analysis.

Population

The entire group of individuals that researchers are interested in studying.

Representative Sample

A subset that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population.

Random Sampling

A technique where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling method that involves selecting individuals who are easiest to reach rather than using random selection.

Generalizing

The process of applying findings from a study to a broader population.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a benchmark to measure the effects of the treatment.

Placebo

An inactive substance or treatment used as a control in an experiment.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where patients experience real changes in their health after receiving a placebo, due to their expectations.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental design where participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental design where both participants and researchers are unaware of who is receiving the treatment to eliminate bias.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations influence the outcome of a study.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for participants to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others, potentially skewing results.

Qualitative Research/Measures

Research that focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences through subjective data.

Structured Interviews

A method of data collection where all participants are asked the same questions in the same order.

Quantitative Research/Measures

Research that focuses on quantifying relationships between variables using statistical methods.

Likert Scales

A rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, with options ranging from strong disagreement to strong agreement.

Representation of Participants

The extent to which a sample reflects the demographics of the larger population it is drawn from.

Peer Review

An evaluation process by which other experts assess the quality and validity of research before publication.

Replication

The act of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Scatterplot

A graph that depicts the relationship between two numerical variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Effect Sizes

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.

Statistical Significance

A determination of whether observed effects in data are likely due to chance or represent a true effect.

Directionality Problem (in correlation)

The issue of not being able to determine which of the two correlated variables influences the other.

Third Variable Problem (in correlation)

The possibility that a third, unmeasured variable influences both of the correlated variables.

Institutional Review

A process that ensures research involving human subjects is conducted ethically and safeguards participant welfare.

Informed Consent

The process of obtaining voluntary agreement from participants to partake in a study, ensuring they understand the research and its implications.

Informed Assent

Informed agreement by individuals who cannot fully consent, like children.

Protection from Harm

Ethical guideline ensuring participants are not exposed to undue risk or harm during research.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle of keeping participants' information private and secure.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true nature of a study, typically conducted when necessary for valid results.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true purpose and nature of a study after its completion, addressing any misconceptions.

Cross-Sectional Study

Data collected from groups of participants at different ages and compared to make conclusions about age differences.

Longitudinal Study

Data collected from the same group of people over a period of time to determine how feelings or behaviors change.

Survey Method

Self-reported attitudes or behaviors, usually collected by questioning a representative random sample.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship (or a stronger-than-actual relationship) where none exists.

Hawthorne Effect

The tendency for research participants to change their behavior simply because they are aware they are being observed in an experiment.

Validity

extent to which a test or experiment measures/predicts what it’s supposed to

Reliability

Extent to which findings can be replicated

Biological Perspective

perspective that all feelings and behaviors have an organic root (body, brain, neurotransmitters, etc)

Evolutionary Perspective/Darwinism

we inherit behaviors from our ancestors to ensure survival

Psychodynamic Perspective

 focuses on the unconcious mind, need to bring forward repressed feelings to get better

Behavioral Perspective

focuses on observable behaviors while putting feelings too the side, belief that we behave in certain ways because we were conditioned to

Humanist Perspective

 we strive to be the best we can be- “self-actualization,” happiness is defined by the distance between our “self-concept” and our “ideal self”

Cognitive Perspective

focuses on how we think/encode information (often paired with behavioral)

Socio-Cultural Perspective

belief that much of your behavior and feelings are dictated by the culture you live in

Biopsychosocial Approaches

incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis for a more holistic view

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths/virtues that help people thrive

Animal Research Ethics

Humane and healthful conditions, minimize discomfort

Human Research Ethics

obtain informed consent/assent, protection from harm/discomfort, anonymity/confidentiality, debrief post-study

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution, often used to show data of descriptive statistics

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allows us to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

P-Value

If a P-Value is .05 or lower, then a study is statistically significant (5% or less likely the results are due to chance)

Normal Distribution Curve

Positively Skewed

Negatively Skewed

If an effect size is large, what does that mean for the strength of a relationship?

The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by another (less overlap between control and experimental group)