Perception and Conflict

Perception

The process of receiving information about and making sense of our surrounding environment.

Attribution Theory

A theory that explains how we perceive the causes of people's behaviour.

Internal Attribution

Attributing behaviour to the person, such as their ability or effort.

External Attribution

Attributing behaviour to outside factors, such as traffic or luck.

Consistency

Does this person act this way in this situation repeatedly? High = yes; low = no.

Consensus

Do other people act this way in the same situation? High = yes; low = no.

Distinctiveness

Does this person act this way in other situations? High = no; low = yes.

Internal Attribution Pattern

High consistency, low consensus, and low distinctiveness.

External Attribution Pattern

Low consistency, high consensus, and high distinctiveness.

Majority Rule in Attribution Theory

If two of the three factors point toward one attribution, the majority rules, but the conclusion is weaker.

Theory X and Theory Y

A theory explaining managers' perceptions of workers.

Theory X Manager

Views workers as lazy, incapable of useful or creative accomplishments, and untrustworthy.

Theory Y Manager

Views workers as industrious, capable of useful or creative accomplishments, and trustworthy.

Theory X Management Style

Negative behaviour, close supervision, and little encouragement, autonomy, responsibility, or delegation.

Theory Y Management Style

Positive behaviour, general supervision, and more encouragement, autonomy, responsibility, and delegation.

Theory X Effect on Workers

Workers tend to perform poorly.

Theory Y Effect on Workers

Workers tend to perform well.

Applying Theory X and Theory Y

Managers should reflect on their perceptions and adopt or strengthen a Theory Y perspective.

Perceptual Bias

Inaccuracy in one's perception.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to explain another person's behaviour using internal factors instead of external factors.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing your success to internal factors and your failures to external factors.

Selective Perception

Perception influenced by your background, knowledge, and experience.

Similar-to-Me Effect

The tendency to perceive someone more positively when they are similar to you.

First Impression Error

The tendency for your first impression of someone to influence later perceptions of them.

Halo Effect

Judging someone's overall character positively based on one positive characteristic.

Horn Effect

Judging someone's overall character negatively based on one negative characteristic.

Contrast Effect

Perceiving someone differently based on the people you evaluated before them.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

The tendency for a person to behave in line with someone else's perception of them.

Pygmalion Effect

Positive expectations lead to positive behaviour or performance.

Golem Effect

Negative expectations lead to negative behaviour or performance.

How Does a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Work?

Expectations influence treatment, which affects confidence and motivation, which then influences performance.

Conflict

A situation in which the needs or wants of two or more people are incompatible.

Conflict Handling Modes

Competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating.

Cooperativeness

The degree to which someone tries to satisfy the other person's concerns.

Assertiveness

The degree to which someone tries to satisfy their own concerns.

Competing

Assertive and uncooperative; win-lose. You get what you want, but the other person does not.

Collaborating

Assertive and cooperative; win-win. Both people get what they want.

Compromising

Midway between assertiveness and cooperativeness; both people give up something.

Avoiding

Unassertive and uncooperative; lose-lose. Neither person's concerns are satisfied.

Accommodating

Unassertive and cooperative; lose-win. You give in to satisfy the other person.

Competing: When Is It Appropriate?

When the issue is very important to you.

Collaborating: When Is It Appropriate?

When you have plenty of time and trust exists between both parties.

Compromising: When Is It Appropriate?

When a quick decision is needed or as a backup conflict handling mode.

Avoiding: When Is It Appropriate?

When you need a break to cool down or the issue is unimportant to both parties.

Accommodating: When Is It Appropriate?

When the issue is unimportant to you, you want to show reasonableness, or you want to build goodwill.

Is There One Best Conflict Handling Mode?

No. The best mode depends on the situation.

Dominant Conflict Handling Mode

The mode you use most often.

Recessive Conflict Handling Mode

The mode you use least often.

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

Using an external third party to help people resolve a conflict.

When Is ADR Most Effective?

When both people agree a third party is needed and agree on who it will be.

Mediation

A third party helps people reach their own decision but does not decide for them.

Arbitration

A third party makes the decision for the people involved.

Conciliation

A third party encourages people to try or continue mediation, arbitration, or resolving the conflict themselves.