AP Psychology Unit #2

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information transforming it into meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

"details to big picture" is a way our brains make sense of information by storing with the small details and the building up to a complete perception

top-down processing

"big picture to details" involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations

selective attention

the process of focusing on a specific interest of information while ignoring others

cocktail party effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party while tuning out other stimuli

inattentional blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimuli in their visual field while their attention is focused on something else

circadian rhythm

the failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the changes occur simultaneously with a visual disruption

schemas

Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us.

perceptual set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others.

gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

proximity, similarity, continuity, closure (a shape made from others), and symmetry

figure ground

refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground).

binocular depth cues

visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

retinal disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face.

convergence

when our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

monocular depth cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye.

relative clarity

a depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away.

relative size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller.

texture gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

linear perspective

A depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.

Interposition

occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer.

perceptual constancies

our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes.

shape constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes.

size constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to grow or shrink.

color constancy

the ability to perceive an object as the same color regardless of the environment

apparent movement

the perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

executive functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.

Prototypes

A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category

Assimilation

"adding to existing" the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas

accommodation

"adjusting" the cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information

convergent thinking

Cognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps.

functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

algorithms

step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)

divergent thinking

a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).

representativeness heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgements about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases

availability heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgements about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

priming

Exposure to one stimulus affects a response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it

Framing

How information is presented influences decisions and perceptions.

Gambler's Fallacy

a cognitive bias that adheres to the ideas that if something hasn't happened recently it soon will

sunk cost fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

encoding

First stage of the memory process; in it information is transformed or coded (a transduction process) into a form that can be processed further and stored

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

Multi-store model

Describes memory as a 3 part system that includes: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory

sensory memory

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most

iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a brief period.

echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

short-term memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity.

long-term memory

the stage of memory where info is strong indefinitely with virtually unlimited capacity

working memory

form of short-term memory used for temporary holding/manipulating info short/long term combined

central executive

the central center of working memory. manages attention, coordinates other memory, components, integrates info from our senses and long-term memory

phonological loop

component of working memory that is responsible for processing and storing visual and auditory info

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

long-term potentiation (LTP)

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. LTP is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

levels of processing model

Proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered.

shallow processing

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface level characteristics of information such as the sound or appearance of words without engaging its meaning

Structural Processing

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information.

Phonemic Processing

type of shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

Deep encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge.

Chunking

A memory strategy that involves grouping information into larger, manageable units.

Categories-Grouping

method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories.

Hierarchies-Grouping

Organizing items into a hierarchy, starting with general categories and working down to specific examples.

mnemonics

Techniques used to improve memory that provide a framework for encoding and recall.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

explicit memories

includes a constant recall of facts and experiences

semantic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world.

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that involves personal experiences and specific events

autobiographical memory

A type of explicit memory that involves recollection of personal experiences. it combines episodic and semantic memory

implicit memory

does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically

precedural memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

prospective memory

type of implicit memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action or skill

massed practice "cramming"

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks.

spacing effect "distributed practice"

The phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session.

maintenance rehearsal

Learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

elaborative rehearsal

Memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge.

retrieval cues

stimuli that helps bring previously learned info to mind. they play a critical role in the process of retrieving memories

recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing info without cues (retrieve info from memory spontaneously)

recognition

identifying info when it is present including familiarity and identification

context dependent memory

when you remember information better in the context or some environment where you first learned it

state dependent memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall memory and info better that is consistent with one's current mood

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

cognitive phenomenon

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

the forgetting curve

graphs retention and forgetting over time

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

proactive interference

occurs when old memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information (ex) learning a new phone number while the old phone number is stuck in your mind)

retroactive interference

occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning

tip of the tongue phenomenon

common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it.

source amnesia

the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge

anterograde amnesia

memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of amnesia although memory before the event remain intact

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

infantile amnesia

The phenomenon where memories before age 3 are unreliable due to the hippocampus still forming.