Developmental Psychology

nature–nurture issue

1.2

The debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in shaping human development and behavior.

continuity–discontinuity issue

1.2

The debate about whether development is a gradual, continuous process or whether it is marked by distinct stages or changes. (stage theory)

universality–context-specificity issue

1.2

The discussion on whether developmental processes are the same across all individuals (universality) or vary significantly depending on cultural and contextual factors (context-specificity).

activity- passivity issue

1.2

The debate concerning the extent to which human behavior is shaped by active engagement in their environment (activity) versus being shaped by external forces beyond their control (passivity).

evolutionary theories

1.2

• human development is influenced by evolutionary processes, focusing on how evolutionary changes shape behaviors, emotions, and social interactions over time.

• both nature and nurture

• CHARLES DARWIN

Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2

Sigmund Freud

Learning Theories

1.2

-Skinner

-Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)

-observational learning

-no stages

cognitive-developmental theory

1.2

-Jean Piaget

-children think differently than adults

Bioecological System theory

1.2

• changing person and changing environment affect one another

Bioecological Model (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

1.2

• Microsystem: environment like home

• Mesostem: interaction between two microsystems (parent-teacher)

• Exosystem: social settings we not experience directly but influence us(parents working environment)

• Macrosystem: larger cultural/societal context in which 1,2,3 are

• Chronosystem: relationships between people and envirnment change over time

cohort

1.3

group of individuals born within the same specified period

age effects

1.3

relationships between age and aspects of development

cohort effects

1.3

effects of being born as a member of a particular cohort

species heredity

2.1

genetic endowments that members of a species have in common

natural selection

2.1

genes that help adapting to environment will be passed to future generations more frequently

cultural evolution

2.1

• inherit from previous generations

• invent better ways to adapt to environment

conception

2.2

when egg is fertilized by sperm

crossing over

2.2

the biological process where two homologous chromosomes (one from each parent) exchange segments of DNA during meiosis

polygenic inheritance

2.2

most important human characteristics are influenced by polygenic inheritance- multiple pairs of genes interacting with multiple environmental factors

copy number variation (CNV)

2.2

a whole segment of the genome is either deleted or duplicated

Down syndrome

2.2

three 21st chromosomes

behavioral genetics

2.3

genetic and environmental differences are responsible for differences in physical and psychological traits

molecular genetics

2.3

identification and analysis of particular genes and their effects

gene–environment interaction

2.5

• the effects of our genes depend on the environment we experience

• the effects of experience depend on what genes we have

passive gene–environment correlation

2.5

home environment

evocative gene–environment correlation

2.5

children evoke responses from their environment

active gene-environment correlation

2.5

children actively seek out particular environments

epigenetic effects

2.5

ways in which environmental factors influence the expression of particular genes in particular cells of the body

germinal period

3.1

• 0-14 days

• zygote divides via mitosis into a morula and becomes a hollow ball called blastocyst

constructivist

5.1

perception is constructed over time through learning

ecological theory

5.1

information is avaiable in the environment- in the objects themselves

Dynamic Systems Theory

5

development happens through the interaction of many different factors, rather than from one single cause

clinical method

6.1

flexible questionnaire technique

scheme

6.1

• organized patterns of thought or action constructed to interpret experiences

• behavioral schemes

• symbolic schemes

adaptation

6.1

• process of adjusting to environmental demands via:

• assimilation: filling new information into existing schemes

• accomodation: modifying existing schemes or creating new ones to fit novel experiences

organization

6.1

combining simple existing schemes into new, complex, and logically ordered structures (visually directed reaching)

zone of proximal development

6.2

gap between what you can accomplish alone and what you need help with from a more knowledgeable person

neuroconstructivism theory

6.3

knowledge is constructed through dynamic changes in in neural structures in response to experience

Fischer’s Dynamic Skill

6.3

• no fixed stages

• sills depend on task+support (Functional+Optimal Level

primary circular reaction

6.4

• 1-4 months

• repeating actions on own body( thum sucking)

secondary circular reaction

6.4

• 4-8 months

• repeating actions on external objects(shaking toy)

coordination of secondary schemes

6.4

• 8-12 months

• combining different schemes to goal-directed action chains (push-reach toy)

tertiary circular reaction

6.4

• 12-18 months

• varied experimentation with objects to explore novelty and cause-effect

Child preoperational vs. concrete operational

6.5

• preoperational (2-7): uses symbols, but fooled by appearences

• concrete operational (7-11): uses real logic

relativistic thinking

6.7

• recognizing that knowledge depends on context and subjective assumptions, rather than a single absolute truth

dialectical thinking

6.7

• mentally wrestling opposite ideas to reconcile contradictions into a higher-level synthesis

information-processing approach

7.1

• An approach to cognition that emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, and decision making

• converts inputs into outputs

Cognitive Schemas

7.1

• Piaget

• patterns of behavior or thought built through assimilation and accomodation by interacting with the environment

sensory register

7.1

• The first memory store in information processing in which stimuli are noticed and are briefly available for further processing. (<1s)

central executive

7.1

• Mechanism that directs attention and controls the flow of information in the working memory system

phonological loop

7.1

• stores auditory/verbal data

visual-spatial sketchpad

7.1

• stores visual and spatial data

episodic buffer

integrates auditory and visual imput chronologically

explicit memory

7.1

• (declarative)

• Memory that involves consciously recollecting the past. Contrast with implicit memory

• conscious recall of semantic (facts) and episodic (events) memory

implicit memory

7.1

• (Nondeclarative)

• Memory that occurs unintentionally and without consciousness or awareness. Contrast with explicit memory

statistical learning

7.1

• Detecting patterns or regularities in the world around us in order to learn about the world and make predictions about what to expect

fuzzy-trace theory

view that verbatim and general or gistlike accounts of an event are stored separately in memory

perseveration error

• Mistake made when an information processor continues to use the same strategy that was successful in the past over and over despite the strategy’s lack of success in the current situation

• A child solves a puzzle using one method. When the puzzle changes, they keep using the same method even though it no longer works

confabulation

7.5

• creation of false autobiographical memories even in people with good memory

Spearman’s Two Factor Theory

8.1

• general intelligence (g)+ special abilities (s)

Vastell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

8.1

• Stratum III : general intelligence

• Stratum II: Fluid + crystallized intelligence

• Stratum I: 69 narrow abilities

savant syndrome

8.1

• phenomenon in which extraordinary talent in a particular area is displayed by a person who otherwise has an intellectual disability

Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence

8.1

components:

• Practical: how context affects what is intelligent.

• Creative: dealing with new and familiar problems.

• Analytic: the mental processes used to solve problems.

Flynn effect

8.4

• generational increase in average IQ

phoneme

9.1

• basic units of sound that change word meaning (b/p)

morphemes

9.1

basic units of meaning

syntax

9.1

systematic rules for forming grammatical sentences

semantics

9.1

The aspect of language centering on meanings

pragmatics

9.1

Rules specifying how language is to be used appropriately in different social contexts to achieve goals

prosody

9.1

melody or sound pattern of speech, including intonation, stress, and timing with which something is said

word segmentation

9.2

• In language development, the ability to break the stream of speech sounds into distinct words

holophrase

9.2

single-word utterance used by an infant that represents an entire sentence’s worth of meaning

vocabulary spurt

9.2

phenomenon occurring around 18 months of age when the pace of word learning quickens dramatically

fast mapping

9.2

The ability to quickly figure out what a new word refers to and remember it for later

overextension

9.2

use a word to refer to a wider set of objects, actions, or events than adults do (e.g., using the word car to refer to all motor vehicles)

underextension

9.2

use general words to refer to a smaller set of objects, actions, or events than adults do (e.g., using candy to refer only to mints)

telegraphic speech

9.2

Mommy go store instead of Mommy is going to the store

functional grammar

9.2

A child says “Daddy chair” to express the meaning that Daddy is on the chair.

overregularization

9.2

Using a grammatical rule for an irregular word where the rule does not apply

transformational grammar

9.2

Rules that allow us to change a statement into different types of sentences

mastery motivation

9.2

intrinsic motive to master and control the environment that is evident early in infancy

alphabetic principle

9.3

idea that the letters in printed words represent the sounds in spoken words

fixed mindset

9.3

The belief that intelligence and other abilities cannot really change, so you focus on proving how good you are rather than improving

growth mindset

9.3

The belief that intelligence can improve through hard work and effort

performance goal

9.3

A goal where you try to show how good you are rather than improve your ability

mastery (learning) goal

9.3

A goal where you want to learn new things and improve your abilities

Holland’s person–environment fit

9.4

matching Self with Work World

Trait theory

10.1

views personality as enduring dispositional traits

4 identity statuses

10.4

• identity diffusion status

• identity foreclosure status

• identity moratorium status

• identity achievement status

social cognition

12.1

Thinking about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behavior of the self and other people

theory of mind

12.1

understanding mental states of others

preconventional morality

12.2

• Stage 1: avoid punishment

• Stage 2: gain rewards, satisfy need

conventional morality

12.2

• Stage 3: seek approval, be “good”, reciprocy

• Stage 4: conform, do good for society

postconventional morality

12.2

• Stage 5: understand underlying purpose of rules

• Stage 6: define right-wrong based on own universal standards of respect for all

induction

12.4

• form of discipline that involves explaining why a child’s behavior is wrong and should be changed by emphasizing its effects on other people

consummate love

13.6

passion+intimacy+commitment

companionate love

13.6

intimacy+commitment

romantic love

13.6

intimacy+passion

fatuous love

13.6

passion+commitment

authoritative parenting

14.3

• high warmth + high control

• optimal child outcome