AP Human Geo

(1.1 Terms) Reference Map

A map designed to show general geographic information and spatial locations of features.

(1.1 Terms) Thematic Map

A map designed to display a specific spatial pattern, or human/physical data distribution.

(1.1 Terms)Choropleth Map

A thematic map that uses shades, tones, or colors to represent statistical data within defined administrative boundaries

(1.1 Terms) Dot Density Map

A map that uses points/dots to represent a specific quantity of a spatial phenomenon; denser areas show higher concentrations

(1.1 Terms) Graduated Symbol Map

A map using symbols (often circles) of varying sizes to represent differences in magnitude or quantity across locations

(1.1 Terms) Isoline Map

A map with continuous line connecting points of equal value (topography map)

(1.1 Terms) Cartogram Map

A map that distorts the geographic shape of land area of regions to scale them proportionally to a specific variable

(1.1 Term List) Absolute and Relative Location

• Absolute Location: The precise position of a place on earth, usually via coordinates or a street address

• Relative Location: The position of a place in relation to other nearby places, physical features, or landmarks

(1.1 Term List) Absolute and Relative Distance

• Absolute Distance: The exact physical distance between places

• Relative Distance: The measure of distance based on time, effort, or travel cost

(1.1 Term List) Absolute and Relative Direction

• Absolute Direction: Cardinal directions

• Relative Direction: Direction described using personal or contextual terms (down south,etc)

(1.1 Term List) Clustering

• A spatial pattern where features/phenomena are concentrated close together in a specific area

(1.1 Term List) Dispersal

• A spatial pattern where features/phenomena are spread widely apart across a landscape

(1.1 Term List) Elevation

• The height of something above sea level

(1.2 Terms) Place

• A specific point on Earth distinguished by its human and physical characteristics

(1.2 Terms) Site

• The physical and absolute characteristics of a location (eg. climate, terrain, elevation, soil type)

(1.2 Terms) Situation

• The location of a place relative to surrounding features and connectivity to other places

(1.2 Terms) Spatial Association

• The degree to which two or more geographic phenomena share similar distributions across space

(1.2 Terms) Flow

• The movement of people, goods, information, or ideas between places

(1.2 Terms) Distance Decay

• The decline of an activity or interaction with increasing distance from its origin

(1.2 Terms) Friction of Distance

• The degree to which distance hinders or delays movement and interaction

(1.2 Terms) Time-Space Compression

• The reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place due to transportation and communication technology

(1.2 Terms) GIS (Geographic Information System)

• A computer system that captures, stores, layers, and analyzes spatial data (like the SC Watershed Atlas)

(1.2 Terms) GPS (Global Positioning System)

• A satellite-based network that determines absolute, precise location coordinates on Earth

(1.2 Terms) Remote Sensing

• Gathering data from a distance using satellites or aircrafts

(1.2 Terms) Quantitative Data

• Numerical Information

(1.2 Terms) Qualitative Data

• Descriptive, opinion-based information

(1.1) Census Core Definition and Purpose

• An official, periodic count of a country’s population that systematically records demographic, economic, and social data

• Conducted every 10 years in the US and most other countries

• Quantitative Data

• Data is packaged and reported in Census Tracts (small neighborhood-scale geographic containers)

(1.3 Terms) Regionalization

• The process of dividing large spatial areas into smaller, cohesive units based on shared characteristics

(1.3 Terms) Formal Region (Uniform)

• An area bounded by official, measurable boundaries or shared physical/cultural traits

(1.3 Terms) Functional Region (Nodal)

• An area organized around a central focal point connected by transportation or communication

(1.3 Terms) Perceptual/Vernacular Region

• An informal area defined by people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, and cultural identity

(1.3 Terms) Regional Boundaries

• Transitional boundaries where original characteristics overlap or shift

(1.3 Terms) Scale of Analysis

• The spatial level at which data is observed and analyzed

(1.3 Terms) Census Data

• Official government counts of population, demographics, housing, and income, directly influences political representation and federal funding allocation

(1.3 Terms) Fieldwork and Observations

• Gathering data directly on the ground via surveys, interviews, photos, or landscape observations

(1.3 Terms) Satellite Imagery and Aerial Photography

• Capturing changes to Earth’s surface over time

(1.4 Terms) Toponym

• The name given to a place on Earth (e.g. Saint Petersburg- Leningrad- Saint Petersburg)

(1.4 Terms) (Human-Environment Interaction (HEI)) Adaptation

• how humans adjust to environmental constraints without changing the environment itself (floating schools, earthquake resistant architecture, etc)

(1.4 Terms) (HEI) Modification

• how humans actively altar the landscape to fit their needs (terrace farming, ploding, etc)

(1.4 Terms) (HEI) Dependence

• How humans rely directly on natural ecosystems and resources for survival (river settlements, geothermal heating,etc)

(1.4 Terms) Environmental Determinism

• Physical Environment dictates and limits human culture and development

• Passive: Humans are shaped entirely by climate, terrain, and resources

• Primary Driver is Nature/Physical Geography

• Popular in late 19th/early 20th century, is now rejected

• Ex. claiming that tropical climates make people lazy

(1.4 Terms) Possibilism

• The environment sets limits, but humans adapt, innovate, and choose options

• Active: Humans use technology, intellect, and culture to overcome natural constraints

• Primary driver is Human culture, choices, and technology

• Modern view, emerged in mid-20th century, widely accepted

• Ex. building air conditioned cities in deserts

(1.4 Terms) Push Factors

• conditions that force people to leave

(1.4 Terms) Pull Factors

• conditions that attract people to a new place

(1.4 Terms) Rural-to-Urban Migration

• movement from countryside villages to major cities for industrial/service jobs

(1.4 Terms) International Refugee Movement

• Forced movement across international borders due to conflict or violence

(1.4 Terms) Supply Chains

• Interconnected steps required to turn raw inputs into finished products

(1.4 Terms) Global Shipping Routes

• Major maritime corridors moving global trade

(1.4 Terms) Expansion Diffusion- Contagious

• spreads rapidly to adjacent populations through direct, person-to-person contact

(1.4 Terms) Expansion Diffusion- Hierarchical

• spreads top-down through nodes of power, prestige, or large urban centers (fashion trens debuting in Paris before small towns)

(1.4 Terms) Expansion Diffusion- Stimulus

• The underlying idea spreads, but is altered to fit local culture or constraints

(1.4 Terms) Relocation Diffusion

• spreads because people physically move and bring their culture with them (spanish language moving to North America via colonization)

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Natural Resources

• Substances occurring naturally in the environment that humans value and utilize

• Ex: Petroleum/crude oil under the Arabian Peninsula. Before the invention of internal combustion engines, oil was just sludge; it only became a natural resource when human tech created a demand

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Renewable Resources

• Produced in nature faster than consumed by humans

• Ex: Solar Panels in the Mojave Desert, Wind Farms in the North Sea, Geothermal Energy in Iceland, Ethanol Biomass in Brazil

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Non-Renewable Resources

• Produced in nature more slowly than consumed

• Ex: Coal Mining in Appalachia, Oil Extraction in Saudi Arabia, Natural Gas in the Permian Basin

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Conservation + Preservation

• Conservation: Sustainable use and management of Earth’s natural resources to meet human needs. Resources are used, but at a rate that allows them to regenerate

• Ex: Forest Stewardship Council Timber Harvesting, Seasonal Fishing Quotas in the Pacific Ocean

• Preservation: Maintenance of resources in their present condition with minimal to no human impact. Resources are strictly kept untouched rather than extracted for human use

• Ex: Yellowstone

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Land Use

• Refers to how humans modify, manage, and transform the physical environment to meet economic,social, and functional needs. Analyzing land use patterns reveals how human societies adapt to, interact with, and alter earth’s landscapes

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Agricultural Land Use

• Market Gardening/Commercial Truck Farming: Highly intensive farming located near urban centers to supply fresh produce quickly

• Ex: The Central Valley of California, which produces fruits, vegetables, and nuts for global markets

• Livestock Ranching: Extensive farming using expansive land areas with low labor inputs per unit of land

• Ex: Cattle ranching in the Pampas of Argentina

• Subsistence Farming: Agriculture designed primarily to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and their family

• Ex: Terraced rice paddy farming in Southeast Asia

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Urban/Residential Land Use

• High-Density Residential: Areas maximized for vertical living space in land with very high bid-rent values

• Ex: High-rise apartment buildings and Condominiums in Manhattan

• Low-Density Suburban Residential: Single-family homes spreading outward from city cores

• Ex: Single-family housing subdivisions in sprawling US Suburban areas

• Commercial Zones/CBD’s: Areas focused on retail, offices, and services, usually centered at accessible transport hubs

• Ex: The Central Business District in the Loop, Chicago

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Industrial Land Use

• Heavy Manufacturing: Large-scale production sites often positioned near rail lines or waterways for cheap bulk transport

• Ex: Steel production complexes along the Ruhr Valley in Germany

• Energy Infrastructure: Land modified specifically for resource extraction and energy generation

• Ex: Solar farms in the Mojave Desert

• High-Tech/Technopoles: Clustering of research centers, tech companies, and light industrial activity

• Ex: Silicon Valley, Research Triangle Park in NC

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Recreational + Protected Land Use

• National Parks + Conservation Areas: Legally protected lands designated to safeguard ecosystems and prevent commercial development

• Ex: Yellowstone

• Urban Green Spaces: Planned open spaces integrated into cities for recreation and environmental balance

• Ex: Central Park in NYC

(1.5 Terms/Notes) Land Degradation

• when land is overused or managed unsustainable, severe environmental degradation occurs

• Soil Erosion: Loss of topsoil caused by intensive tilling, overgrazing, or removing native vegetation, leaving soil vulnerable to wind and water

• Ex: The 1930s Dust Bowl

• Desertification: The progress by which fertile, semi-arid land becomes dry and desert-like due to overgrazing, deforestation, and climate pressures

• Ex: The Sahel Region south of the Sahara Desert

• Deforestation: The large-scale removal of forests for agricultural expansion, timber, or urbanization

• Ex: The Amazon Rainforest in Brazil

(1.6 Terms) Scale

• The relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and the Earth as a whole. In geography, it can refer to map scale or spatial scale

(1.6 Terms) Scale of Analysis

• The spatial level, framework, or scope at which a geographer groups and examines data to observe patterns and processes (state-by-states vs country-by-country)

(1.6 Terms) Cartographic Scale (Map Scale)

• The mathematical relationship between distance on a map and distance on Earth’s surface (ex. 1:24,000)

(1.6 Terms) Geographical Scale (Relative Scale)

• The territorial extent of an area being analyzed or observed. It determines how much ground area a study covers—ranging from a single neighborhood up to the entire planet

(1.6 Terms) Global Scale

• The largest spatial scale, covering the entire planet. Used to analyze worldwide phenomena such as climate change, global trade networks, or world population growth

(1.6 Terms) World Regional Scale

• A scale encompassing multiple countries that share geographical, cultural, or historical ties

(1.6 Terms) National Scale

• A scale that focuses on a single sovereign country. Data at this scale highlights national laws, economic policies, or demographic trends within country borders

(1.6 Terms) National Regional Scale

• A scale encompassing a specific sub-region or portion within a single country (ex. US Midwest)

(1.6 Terms) Local Scale

• The smallest spatial scale, focusing on a precise, limited area such as a country, city, neighborhood, or single facility. It reveals detailed patterns obscured at larger scale

(1.6 Terms) Aggregation

• The process of grouping data into larger spatial units or categories. High aggregation simplifies complex maps but conceals local variations

(1.6 Terms) False Scale

• A misleading spatial analysis where data aggregated at one scale is used to draw inaccurate conclusions about a different scale, often leading to generalizations that ignore ;localized patterns

(1.6 Terms) Data Aggregation

• The process of gathering individual-level data and expressing it in summary form for a defined area

• The Generalization Rule:

• Zooming Out (Coarse Scale/ High Aggregation): When moving to global or national scales, localized details are grouped into large spatial units. While this highlights broad, overarching spatial trends, it masks local variation and extremes

• Zooming In (Fine Scale/ Low Aggregation): When moving to local scales, data is broken down into smaller, individual units. This unconvers localized patterns, anomalies, and fine variation that were obscured at high levels

(1.6 Notes) Visualizing + Interpreting Data Across Scales

• Identify the Unit of Analysis: Always check what the smallest spatial unit on the key/legend represents

• Watch for False Homogeneity: A map shaded uniformly at the national level implies everyone in that nation experiences the same condition, whereas local maps reveal hot spots and cold spots

• Different Scale, Different Conclusion:

• National Graph: Shows high average per capita income for a nation

• Local Graph: Reveals extreme wealth in coastal communities contrasted with deep structural poverty in rural areas

(1.7 Terms) Regions

• Geographic areas defined by one or more unifying characteristics, patterns, or functional connections that distinguish them from surrounding areas

(1.7 Terms) Subregions

• Smaller, distinct divisions whithin a larger world region based on unique local traits (Central America as a subregion of Latin America)

(1.7 Terms) Formal Regions

• An area defined by official boundaries or shared, measurable traits

• Bound by uniform features; borders are clear, official, or data-driven

• AP Exam Clue: “everyone inside shares…”

(1.7 Terms) Uniform Formal Regions

• Defined by strict, official, or legal boundaries

(1.7 Terms) Homogeneous Formal Regions

• Defined by a common physical or cultural characteristic shared evenly across the area/language zone

(1.7 Terms) Functional Regions (Nodal Regions)

• An area organized around a central focal point (node) and tied to it by transportation, communication, or economic activities (a metro subway map)

• Ties/movement weaken as you move away from the node (distance decay)

• AP Exam Clue: “networks” “flows” “community” “broadcast limits”

(1.7 Terms) Perceptual Region (Vernacular Regions)

• An area defined by people’s informal feelings, cultural activities, or mental maps rather than strict boundaries or economic ties( “The Middle East”)

• Boundaries are informal, fuzzy, unmeasurable, and often debated

• AP Exam Clue: “informal” “nicknames” “stereotypes” “mental maps”

(1.7 Notes) Problems with Regional Analysis

• Overlapping Boundaries: Regions rarely have sharp, neat borders on the ground

• Transitional Zones: Regions usually bleed into one another through a gradient rather than a distinct wall

• Contested Boundaries: Geographers, politicians, and locals frequently disagree over where a region begins or ends

• Internal Diversity + Generalization: Grouping an entire territory into a single region hides internal differences and localized variations

• Scale Distortions: Data patterns change depending on whether you analyze them at a global, national, or local scale

(2.1 Terms) Population Density

• The measurement of the average number of people per unit land area

• It quantifies how crowded or concentrated a given area is. Geographers use three distinct variations of population density (arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural) to analyze different relationships between people, land, and resources.

(2.1 Terms) Population Distribution

• The spatial arrangement or pattern of where people live across Earth’s surface

• Unlike population density, population distribution focuses on location and pattern. Geographers analyze distribution to see how physical factors and human factors influence where human settlements form

(2.1 Terms) Midlatitudes

• The regions on Earth located between 30 and 60 north and 30 and 60 south of the Equator

• Notable because they contain the vast majority of the world’s population. These zones feature temperate climates, moderate rainfall, distinct seasons, and fertile soild-conditions ideal for agricultural, human health, and urban development.

(2.1 Terms) Social Stratification

• The hierarchical categorization of people into socio-economic layers based on factors like wealth, income, social status, occupation, power, or caste

• Within population studies, social stratification helps us understand disparities in settlement patterns, access to resources, quality of life, housing quality, and mortality rates.

(2.1 Terms) Arithmetic Population Density

• Total People/ Total Land Area

• Most common form of density, can be misleading, does not reflect whether the land is usable/liveable, hides local population cultures

(2.1 Terms) Physiological Population Density

• Total People/ Arable Land Area

• Reveals the pressure a population exerts on its food producing land. A country with a low arithmetic density but a very high physiological density indicates that a large population relies on a relatively ting amount of farmable land, signaling potential resource stress or heavy reliance on food imports

(2.1 Terms) Agricultural Population Density

• Total Farmers/ Arable Land Area

• reveals the technological advancement and economic development of a place

• Low Agricultural Density: Indicates modern, highly mechanized commercial farming where very few farmers are needed to cultivate large areas of farmland

• High Agricultural Density: Indicates labor intensive subsistence farming where many people work small plots of land by hand

(2.2 Terms) Infrastructure

• The fundamental physical, technological, and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or economy

• includes transportation systems, utility systems, and communication networks, also social infrastructure (like public schools and hospitals)

(2.2 Terms) Overpopulation

• The number of people in an area exceeds the available resources and capacity of the environment to sustain them at a decent standard of living

• not simply high population density

• Malthusian Theory: warned that population grows exponentially while food production grows linearly

• Symptoms: resource depletion, environmental degradation, severe pollution, housing shortages, high unemployment, and widespread malnutrition

(2.2 Terms) Carrying Capacity

• The maximum population size of a species that a specific environment can sustainably support indefinitely without degrading the natural resources base

• Not a fixed number, changes bases on tech, trade, and resource management

(Unit 2 Notes) Where People Live + Why

Physical Factors

• Midlatitudes: Moderate climates with adequate rainfall and fertile soils

• Low Elevations + Plains: Flat land is easier to farm, build on, and construct infrastructure

• Freshwater + Coasts: River valleys and coastal zones provide access to water, trade, and food

Physical Barriers

• Dry lands, wet lands, cold lands, and high lands

Human Factors

• Economic: Availability of jobs, industrial hubs, and trade networks

• Political: stable governments attract settlement, whereas war and conflict cause displacement

• Historical: past colonial trade networks and long-standing cultural connections influence where urban hubs developed

(2.3 Terms) Age-Sex Composition Graph

• A data visualization tool- specifically a back-to-back horizontal bar graph-that displays the demographic structure of a population. The vertical axis displays age groups (usually groups into 5-year increments), while the horizontal axis indicates the percentage or total count of the males (left) and the females(right),

• allows geographers to evaluate past demographic events, assess current socio-economic needs, and project future population growth

(2.3 Terms) Population Pyramid

• The most common form of an age-sex composition graph. The overall geometric shape of the graph indicates a populations growth trajectory

• Wide base/narrow top: rapid growth, high demand for pediatric care, schools, future job growth

• Straight/Box shape: slow/stable growth, balanced workforce, predictable strain on social infrastructure

• Narrow Base/bulging Top: declining growth, high old age dependency ratio, workforce shortages, high pension/healthcare burden

Anomalies:

• Indents (gaps): usually signify wars, famines, or major epidemics

• Work-age male bulges: indicate guest worker destinations (construction areas, etc) or military bases

• young adult bulges: college towns

• elderly bulges: retirement areas

• 25-50 year old bulges: economic crisis=less children

• more men than women: oil boom/fishing/jobs, military base

• more women than men: assisted living home neighborhood, women live longer

(2.3 Terms) Cohort

• A specific sub-group of a population bound together by a shared demographic characteristic, most commonly age

• on a population pyramid, each horizontal bar represents a single age cohort

(2.3 Terms) Birth Deficit

• a significant, temporary slowdown/drop in birth rates within a population, creating a noticeable gap or indent in specific age cohorts

• typically caused by external crises such as military conflicts, economic depressions, or famines

(2.3 Terms) Baby Boom

• sharp, rapid spike in the birth rate over a sustained period

• commonly occurs immediately following the end of a war or major national crisis when peace and economic stability return

(2.3 Terms) Baby Bust

• a period immediately following a baby boom characterized by a sudden and sharp decline in fertility rates

• typically driven by cultural shifts, rising education/employment opportunities for women, increased access to contraception, or economic recessions