World Regional Geography: Key Concepts and Regional Overviews

Geography

Studies people, environments, spatial relationships, patterns, and how human and physical systems interact.

Spatial perspective

Focuses on where things are, how they are distributed, and how that spatial organization matters.

Cartography

The making of maps.

Remote sensing

Satellites/scanners collect information about Earth's surface and send it to computers.

GIS

Programs used to present and analyze spatial data.

Mental map

A person's internal map of their activity spaces and the world.

Scale

Relationship between map distance and real-world distance, expressed as a ratio.

Operational scale

The scale at which a social or natural process operates.

Absolute location

Location using latitude/longitude coordinates.

Relative location

Location described in relation to other places.

Geographic realm

A global neighborhood with a particular combination of environmental, cultural, and organizational properties.

Transition zone

An area where two geographic realms meet; boundaries are often not sharp.

Monocentric realm

Realm dominated by one major political entity.

Polycentric realm

Realm organized among several relatively influential regions/countries.

Region

A more specific spatial classification based on selected criteria.

Formal region

Region showing measurable or visible internal homogeneity.

Functional region

Region organized around interaction, usually with a core and periphery.

Core

Center/heart of activity in a functional region.

Hinterland

Surrounding zone connected to/interacting with the core.

Periphery

Outer/boundary area of a functional region.

Globalization

Process that can make places more alike while also intensifying some contrasts.

Pangaea

Supercontinent that broke apart as continents continued to move.

Tectonic plates

Large moving slabs beneath Earth's surface; their movement can cause earthquakes and volcanoes.

Pacific Ring of Fire

Zone around the Pacific with many active volcanoes and earthquake epicenters.

Weather vs. climate

Weather = short-term atmospheric state; climate = long-term record/pattern of weather.

Köppen A climates

Humid equatorial/tropical climates.

Köppen B climates

Dry climates.

Köppen C climates

Humid temperate climates.

Köppen D climates

Humid cold/continental climates.

Köppen E climates

Cold polar climates.

Köppen H climates

Highland climates.

Af

Tropical rainforest.

Aw

Tropical savanna.

Am

Tropical monsoon.

BS

Semiarid.

BW

Arid.

Cf

Temperate climate with no dry season.

Cw

Temperate climate with dry winter.

Cs

Temperate climate with dry summer.

Df

Cold/continental climate with no dry season.

Dw

Cold/continental climate with dry winter.

ET

Tundra.

EF

Ice.

H

Highland; high altitude with large temperature ranges.

Anthropocene

Term used in the course for an era in which humans predominantly affect the natural environment.

North American realm

Canada and the United States are highly developed, resource-rich, highly urbanized, mobile, multilingual, and culturally connected.

Population concentration

U.S.: major clusters along Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Canada: strong east-west corridor near the U.S. border.

Continentality

Inland climate relatively removed from maritime influence; continental interiors tend to have lower population densities.

Rain shadow effect

Air rises/rains on the windward side of mountains, then descends drier on the leeward side.

Great Lakes

Five lakes that drain into the St. Lawrence River.

Mississippi-Missouri system

Major river system flowing toward the Gulf of Mexico.

Canadian Shield

Resource-rich physiographic area containing ores such as iron, nickel, copper, gold, uranium, and diamonds.

American Manufacturing Belt

Traditional major manufacturing region in North America.

Primary sector

Extraction of raw materials from nature.

Secondary sector

Manufacturing raw materials into finished products.

Tertiary sector

Services supporting production and consumption.

Deindustrialization

Loss of manufacturing and manufacturing jobs, especially after 1970, linked in the course to automation and structural change.

Suburbanization

Shift from a compact city toward a more dispersed metropolitan area with suburbs.

CBD

Central business district; traditional dominant metropolitan core.

Information economy

High technology, producer services, finance, and research/development.

Sharing/gig economy

Economic activity relying heavily on networking in virtual and real space.

Gentrification

Revitalization/upgrading of deteriorated downtown neighborhoods.

Polycentric urban region

Urban region with multiple centers rather than one dominant downtown.

Sunbelt

Southern tier of U.S. states.

Melting pot

Course term for an idea of cultural mixing in the United States.

First Nations

Term used in the course for Indigenous peoples in Canada.

Technopole

High-technology industrial complex/region.

Pacific Rim

Region connected to the Pacific-facing economies and trade networks.

Canada population pattern

Population clusters mainly within about 300 km/200 mi of the U.S. border and along ocean shores.

Quebec

Francophone region of Canada; a major English/French cultural contrast within Canada.

Manufacturing Belt location

Traditionally concentrated where transportation, markets, labor, resources, and established industry supported manufacturing.

Northern Frontier

Largest North American region in the course; includes about 90% of Canada and all of Alaska.

Athabasca tar sands

Very large petroleum-resource area in Alberta.

Boreal forest

Dense coniferous forest including spruce, fir, and pine.

Middle American realm

Second-smallest world geographic realm in the course; Mexico is its dominant state.

Latin America misnomer

Course explains the label as referring to Spanish-Portuguese heritage, while the region is actually a multilingual, multicultural patchwork.

Borderland

Transition zone between North and Middle America.

NAFTA

1994 trade agreement among Canada, the United States, and Mexico.

Maquiladoras

Foreign-owned assembly factories near the U.S. border using imported components/materials and exporting finished products.

Isthmus

Narrow strip of land connecting larger land areas.

Land bridge

Middle America connects North and South America.

Greater Antilles

Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico.

Lesser Antilles

Smaller island chain east/southeast of the Greater Antilles.

Archipelago

Chain/group of islands.

Hurricane Alley

Course area including the Greater Antilles, southern Florida, Yucatán Peninsula, and Gulf of Mexico.

Altitudinal zonation

Elevation-based changes in climate, soil, vegetation, crops, animals, and ways of life.

Tierra caliente

Sea level-750 m; hot land; tropical agriculture.

Tierra templada

Up to about 1,800 m; cooler; crops include coffee, corn, and wheat.

Tierra fría

About 1,800-3,600 m; cold zone; potatoes and barley.

Tierra helada

About 3,600-4,500 m; above tree line; cold/barren; hardy livestock.

Tierra nevada

Highest zone; permanent snow and ice.

Culture hearth

Source area from which ideas radiate and where societies can develop materially/intellectually.

Mestizo

Course term for the major mainland cultural mix of Spanish and Indigenous heritage.

Hacienda

Estate associated with prestige/landholding in mainland Middle America.

Plantation

Large agricultural operation historically associated with cash crops such as sugar/bananas/coffee.

Acculturation

One-way incorporation of another cultural influence.

Transculturation

Two-way exchange of cultural traits.