Observation and Experimentation (Unit 2.3)

Scientific induction

Reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion or hypothesis

Scientific deduction

Reasoning from a general hypothesis or principle to a specific prediction or conclusion

Scientific research

An orderly systematic inquiry that uses observations and data to develop explanations or conclusions

Scientific inquiry

An orderly procedure carried out to suggest a hypothesis or reach a conclusion based on data

Scientific method

A systematic process involving observations scientific questions hypotheses predictions experiments and analysis to develop scientific knowledge

Scientific observation

The systematic directed collection of information from the senses or scientific instruments for research purposes

Casual observation

Informal collection of information that may be subjective biased limited or unrepresentative

Scientific experimentation

A systematic investigation designed to test a hypothesis theory or law

Experiment

A controlled systematic investigation intended to support or refute a hypothesis

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for observations that can be tested and potentially disproved

Scientific hypothesis

A proposed explanation that makes testable predictions and can be falsified through repeatable investigation

Scientific question

A question that can be investigated and answered through scientific testing

Falsifiability

The quality of a hypothesis that allows it to be disproved by possible observations or experimental results

Falsification

The process of testing whether evidence disproves a hypothesis

Prediction

A statement about an expected observation or outcome derived from a hypothesis

Testable hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be assessed using observations or experiments

Repeatable experiment

An experiment that can be performed again under the same conditions to check whether similar results are obtained

Valid scientific induction

Inductive reasoning that is supported by sufficient observations made under representative conditions and considers relevant observations without ignoring exceptions

Strength of an inductive argument

The degree to which the available evidence supports its general conclusion

Representative observations

Observations that adequately reflect the range of relevant conditions or cases being studied

Acceptable premises in induction

Premises based on observations made under different representative conditions

Generalization

A conclusion that extends from specific observations to a broader group or general principle

Valid deduction

Deductive reasoning in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises

Sound deduction

A deductive argument that is logically valid and has premises accepted as true

Premise

A statement used as a reason or supporting basis for a conclusion

Conclusion

A statement that follows from premises or represents the outcome of an investigation

Accuracy

The degree to which a measurement or calculated result conforms to the actual or accepted value

Precision

The degree to which repeated measurements or calculations produce similar results

Measurement validity

The extent to which observations or measurements are accurate and precise

Repeatability

The consistency of measurements when the same measurement process instrument and operator are used under the same conditions over a short period

Reproducibility

The consistency of measurements when the same measurement process is used with different instruments or operators or over longer periods

Measurement error

The difference or variation between a measured result and the value being measured

Bias

A systematic influence that causes observations or results to favour a particular outcome

Subjectivity

The influence of personal beliefs expectations experiences or interpretations on observations

Objectivity

The collection and interpretation of information with minimal influence from personal opinions or bias

Scientific data

Information collected through systematic observation measurement or experimentation

Primary source

The original source from which information is directly obtained

Systematic observation

Planned and selective observation in which the observer identifies what to observe and records the results for analysis

Directed observation

Observation guided by a specific purpose question or investigative objective

Measurement

The process of determining the magnitude or quantity of a property using an appropriate method or instrument

Qualitative observation

An observation describing a quality or characteristic rather than expressing it numerically

Quantitative observation

An observation expressed numerically through counting or measurement

Recording observations

Documenting observed information so it can be examined analysed interpreted and communicated

Scientific instruments

Tools used to improve the precision accuracy range or objectivity of observations

Instrumentation

The use of scientific instruments to collect or measure data

Instrument bias

Systematic distortion in observations caused by an instrument or the way it is used

Observer bias

Distortion in observations caused by the expectations assumptions or personal judgement of the observer

Sensory limitations

The restrictions of human senses that can make direct observations inaccurate incomplete or misleading

Optical illusion

A visual perception that differs from the physical properties of the object or image being observed

Interpretation

The process of assigning meaning to observations or data

Inference

A conclusion or judgement drawn from observations rather than directly perceived through the senses

Observation versus inference

An observation describes information directly perceived or measured whereas an inference interprets that information to reach a conclusion

Reliability of the senses

The degree to which sensory observations consistently reflect the properties of the observed object or event

Improving observational reliability

Using trained observers scientific instruments repeated measurements and different observers or instruments to reduce errors and bias

Scientific observation versus casual observation

Scientific observation is planned measurable systematic recorded and suitable for analysis whereas casual observation is often informal limited subjective and uncontrolled

Scientific experiment versus casual experiment

A scientific experiment uses systematic procedures and controls to test a hypothesis whereas an informal trial may lack controls sufficient observations and a clear testable prediction

Controlled observation

Observation conducted under conditions that are deliberately managed to investigate a specific question

Controlled experiment

An experiment in which relevant variables are controlled so the effect of the variable being tested can be assessed

Experimental variable

A factor or condition that can change and may affect the outcome of an experiment

Independent variable

The variable deliberately changed or adjusted by the experimenter

Dependent variable

The variable measured because it responds to changes in the independent variable

Controlled variables

Factors that could affect the outcome but are kept constant so their effects do not interfere with the test

Control of variables

Keeping relevant conditions constant while changing the independent variable and measuring the dependent variable

Experimental objective

A clear statement of what the experiment is intended to investigate or determine

Experimental procedure

The sequence of actions followed when conducting an experiment

Apparatus

The equipment and materials required to carry out an experiment

Experimental results

The observations and measurements obtained during an experiment

Data analysis

The process of examining and processing collected data to identify patterns relationships or differences

Statistical analysis

The use of statistical methods to analyse data and assess patterns or variation

Graphical analysis

The use of graphs to examine relationships between measured variables and assess whether results fit a prediction

Experimental conclusion

A concise statement explaining what the results show in relation to the hypothesis or objective

Experimental discussion

An interpretation of the results that considers the procedure apparatus sources of error accuracy and comparison with previous knowledge or research

Experimental report

A documented account of an investigation that explains its purpose methods results analysis and conclusions in enough detail for others to evaluate or repeat it

Purpose section of an experiment report

The section stating what the investigation aims to determine

Apparatus section of an experiment report

The section listing the equipment used in the investigation

Procedure section of an experiment report

The section describing the steps followed during the investigation

Observation section of an experiment report

The section presenting the results and measurements collected

Calculations and analysis section

The section showing how results are processed converted or examined

Discussion section of an experiment report

The section interpreting findings and considering errors accuracy procedural issues and relevant previous research

Conclusion section of an experiment report

The section briefly stating what was found in relation to the investigation objective

Replication of an experiment

Repeating an investigation to check the consistency and reliability of its results

Confirming experimental results

Repeating an experiment and examining whether similar findings are obtained

Experimental quality

The degree to which an experiment provides a reliable test of a hypothesis through appropriate controls measurements and procedures

Scientific prediction

An expected result derived from a hypothesis that can be compared with experimental observations

Discriminating test

An experiment designed so that the results are likely to differ from the prediction if the hypothesis is incorrect

Worthless experimental test

A test that cannot meaningfully challenge a hypothesis because its predictions can be reinterpreted to fit almost any outcome

Supporting a hypothesis

Obtaining results consistent with the hypothesis without proving it conclusively

Refuting a hypothesis

Obtaining evidence that contradicts the hypothesis under the conditions tested

Proving a hypothesis

Establishing a hypothesis as unquestionably true which scientific experiments generally cannot accomplish conclusively

Scientific theory

A well-supported explanatory framework that accounts for observations and can be used to generate predictions

Scientific law

A scientific statement describing a regularity or relationship in nature

Relationship between hypothesis and theory

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that is tested whereas a theory is an explanation that has gained broad scientific acceptance through supporting evidence

Relationship between observation and theory

Observations provide evidence used to develop assess and challenge scientific theories

Relationship between experiment and theory

Experiments test predictions derived from theories and may support or challenge those theories

Acceptability of a scientific theory

A theory should accommodate all known relevant observations and remain open to testing and challenge

Scientific theory and prediction

A scientific theory should allow predictions about observations or outcomes

Scientific theory and falsifiability

A scientific theory must be open to being challenged by possible evidence

Scientific progress

The gradual development of more fundamental understanding through systematic observation testing and revision of scientific explanations

Scientific method and authority

Scientific claims should be tested through evidence and experimentation rather than accepted solely because an authority supports them

Science as a method

Science is distinguished by the methods used to investigate questions rather than solely by the subject being studied