Personality Psych Exam #2 Erikson - Trait Perspective.

Covers Erikson, Maslow, Rogers, and Trait Perspecrtive.

Erikson is known for his influential theory

of

psychosocial development

Ego psychology:

theory that emphasizes the integration of biological and psychosocial forces in the determination of personality functioning with a special focus on developmental crises.

Freud: ego is weak in comparison to the

powerful id.

Erikson:

ego is a powerful agency that helps people to resolve inner conflicts and environmental challenges, ultimately promotes health.

The main focus of ego psychology is the development of a strong ego identity as individuals resolve

the crises inherent in the developmental process.

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through

eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

The epigenetic principle:

principle that there is a genetically determined sequence of human development that occurs in a series of stages, universal to humankind, and unfolds in a predetermined sequence.

For Erikson these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they

involve psychological needs of the individual which conflict with the needs of society.

According to Erikson, Psychosocial/Ego development

occurs throughout the lifetime.

The maturation process has critical points referred to as

crisis

Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Positive resolution of each crises =

strengthening of the ego.

Positive resolution in one stage increases the chances of positive resolution in later stages.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages, and therefore, the development of an

unhealthy personality and sense of self.

These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Ego strength = virtue

Virtues:

human qualities or strengths that emerge from successful resolution of the crisis associated with various developmental stages.

Each stage provides the opportunity for the establishment of a unique strength or virtue.

Personality Development

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial (Ego) Development

1. Oral-sensory stage:

Basic trust versus Mistrust, 1st year of life.

Pleasure centers around the mouth and feeding.

Crisis, basic trust or basic mistrust, a direct result of

parenting

Ego strength: hope.

By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable, and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they

will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.

Muscular-anal stage: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, 2nd stage,

2nd and 3rd years of life.

Children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

During this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and

making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Main issue, toilet training: forces children to obey and leads to conflict of wills.

Autonomy and self-control takes place if parents guide children’s behavior gradually yet firmly. If to harsh and demanding, shame and doubt occurs.

Muscular-anal stage: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (continued)

Ego Strength:

will: a gradual increase in the power to exercise judgment and decision.

The virtue of Will develops if children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

Locomotor-genital stage: Initiative versus guilt, 3rd

stage, ages 4 and 5.

Children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Initiative is sparked, become more curious about those around them, and can

now locomote more freely.

Has similar issues with parents regarding Oedipus complex. Believes they attempt to possess the parent of the opposite sex and feel rivalry for the same sex parent.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. Too much guilt can make the child

slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.

Some guilt is, of course, necessary; other wise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

Parental response determines the outcome. If over-punished or over-criticized, guilt develops. With understanding and redirection, ego strength development.

Ego strength: purpose:

thinking big, identifying with parents, and beginning a new set of life goals.

Play activities are important during this stage as they are working through roles for their future.

Latency stage: Industry versus inferiority, 4th stage, ages 6 – 12.

Lull in sexual desires and focus turns from the home to school life

The child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now strives for

Ego strength:

a sense of accomplishment and self-esteem based on the values of society.

Competence

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals

If their initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teachers, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting their own abilities, and therefore may not reach their potential.

Some failure may

be necessary so that the child can develop modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary

According to Erikson, the important event at this stage is attendance at school. As a student, the children have a need to be productive and do work on their own. They are both

physically and mentally ready for it. Interaction with peers at school also plays an imperative role of child development in this stage.

Adolescence: Identity versus role confusion, 5th stage, age 13 – 19.

Now have a growing sense of self-identity, though strongly depends on past stages. Adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Identity:

multifaceted concept that involves knowing who you are and where you are going, as well as what you are not and do not want to be, the unified sense of self as uniquely different from others.

This is a major stage (Adolescence) of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine their identity and try to find out exactly who they are.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved:

the sexual and the occupational.

Identity crisis is normal during this stage. (Adolescence)

Identity crisis:

developmental turning point, associated primarily with adolescence, where choices need to be made in various areas of life such as career, mate, and ideology to live by.

It is a moratorium:

All of which is experienced during the identity

crisis.

Role confusion:

time of exploration during adolescence filled with role confusion as they actively consider life goals and alternatives in their attempts to arrive at decisions.

concern for who they are and what they will become.

Ego strength: fidelity:

The ability to sustain loyalties to friends and coworkers freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions of value systems.

a sense of loyalty and commitment. According to Erikson, fidelity involves being able to commit oneself to others, on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

Crisis not resolved = negative identity:

scornful and hostile toward roles offered, loyalties to those who are destructive to themselves

Erikson believed pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation, 6th stage, ages 20 – 24.

During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships as we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Intimacy:

the ability to establish close relationships with others, to abide by commitments with significant compromises and sacrifices necessary.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

Without a healthy capacity for intimacy comes a sense of isolation:

the inability to take chances with one’s identity by showing true intimacy. Involves a fear of commitment which leads to loneliness, and sometimes depression.

With successful completion comes the Ego Strength: Love

Middle adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation, 7th stage, ages 25 – 64.

Generativity:

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. It’s the process of establishing and/or enhancing a creative and productive career and of being concerned with ensuring the well-being of the next generation.

During middle-age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees, or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

Stagnation:

Ego Strength:

lack of productivity, boredom, and interpersonal impoverishment

Care

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become

stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.

Late adulthood: Ego Integrity versus despair: the final stage, 65 to death.

It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Intense reflection, reminiscence, and recollections.

Ego integrity:

Despair:

in the elderly, feeling their lives had positive meaning and have been worth living.

negative outcome involving fear of death, see lives as failures, unable to rectify mistakes do to lack of time remaining.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Ego Strength:

Wisdom:

Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness and accept death without fear.

Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Wisdom

detached concern with life itself in the face of death, life is put into perspective, with acceptance and a deeper insight into one’s own and other’s motives and behavior and having empathy, sympathy and compassion for others.

Positive Evaluation:
By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development.

Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now

considered active and significant times of personal growth.

Research indicates many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.

Negative Evaluation:
Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.

Another point of criticism is that this theory covers only a few aspects of human development, such as individual’s basic attitude towards other people and towards life. It does not deal with other

Erikson’s thinking was shaped by his own varied experiences. Erikson built his theory largely on

ethical principles and not necessarily on scientific data.

Criticisms of Erikson’s theory focus on ambiguous terminology, incomplete descriptions of the psychosocial stages, and poorly supported claims of male-female personality differences based on biological factors

Research and Support:
Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work, James Marcia developed four Identity Statuses of psychological identity development, primarily focusing on adolescent development.

The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits.

Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argues that two distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity:

crisis (a time when one’s values and choices are being reevaluated) and commitment.

Erikson had suggested that the normal conflict occurring in adolescence is the opposition between identity and confusion, where as, Marcia elaborated by suggesting this stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion, rather the extent to which one has

both explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains including politics, occupation, religion, intimate relationships, friendships, and gender roles

Marcia proposed four stages, or Identity Statuses,

of psychological identity development: (part 1)

1:Identity diffusion: lack firm commitments and are not actively in crisis.

2:Foreclosure: never experienced crisis but made firm commitments to goals, beliefs and values.

Marcia proposed four stages, or Identity Statuses,

of psychological identity development: (part 2)

3: Moratorium: state of crisis and actively considering alternatives in attempt to make decisions.

4: Identity achievement: undergone a period of crisis and as a result, developed firm commitments.

Jean Phinney developed a model of Ethnic Identity based on Erikson’s theory of development, following Marcia’s ego-identity theory.

Ethnic identity:

Bicultural identity:

a sense of belonging and commitment to a group because the individual shares a common heritage, knowledge, attitudes, and values with other members.

positive attitudes toward their own ethnic group and toward the majority group.

Jacob Orlofsky used three major criteria for assessing a person's level of intimacy as suggested by Erikson:

1: Does the person have close relationships with male and female friends?

2: Does he or she have an enduring heterosexual relationship?

3:Are the person's close relationships deep or superficial? (Depth includes openness, affection, respect, loyalty, a capacity to accept and resolve differences, and mutuality.)

Based on these criteria, Orlofsky identified 6

relationships, or intimacy statuses: (part 1)

1: Intimate individuals: deep relationships with male and female friends and involved in enduring, committed heterosexual relationships.

2: Preintimate individuals: close emotional ties but ambivalent about committing to enduring love relationships.

Based on these criteria, Orlofsky identified 6

relationships, or intimacy statuses: (part 2)

3: Stereotyped individuals: have many relationships, but superficial, lack closeness and commitment.

4: Pseudointimate individuals: like above, relationships lack depth yet still in enduring heterosexual commitments.

Based on these criteria, Orlofsky identified 6

relationships, or intimacy statuses: (part 3)

5: Isolated individuals: withdrawn from social situations and relationships with peers.

6: Merger individuals: committed themselves to enduring relationships but become absorbed in their relationships at the expense of their own autonomy and sense of self. Enmeshment.

Assessment techniques:
Egalitarian and personal with patients

Disciplined subjectivity:

Transference, free association, and dream analysis, though interpreted them

Play-therapy techniques

sought to analyze and understand the patient’s problems through empathy as well as by examining the historical events that affected the patient’s life.

in psychosocial terms, not sexual.

Erikson was a pioneer in the use of psychohistorical analysis to increase our understanding of the lives of important historical figures. Erikson developed

Psychohistorical analysis:

the procedure because he was interested in building a bridge between psychoanalysis and history.

technique for analyzing the lives of historical figures on the basis of Erikson’s theory of ego development.

Theory of Self-actualization:

process whereby the healthy development of people’s abilities enables them to fulfill their own true natures.

The Hierarchy of Human Needs

-Self-Actualization and Growth Needs

-Esteem Needs

-Belongingness and Love Needs

-Safety Needs

-Physiological Needs

2 basic sets of needs rooted in our biology:
1. Deficiency needs, which are alternatively known as

2. Growth needs, which are alternatively known as

(basic needs): include physiological drives, safety needs, belongingness and love needs and esteem needs.

(meta needs): the need for self-actualization and cognitive understanding

Basic needs, aka deficiency needs, are

Physiological needs: include hunger, thirst and sex.

When hungry will think of nothing else. Few poor people have a quest for self- actualization.

Safety needs:

need for security, protection, structure, law, order, limits and freedom from fear, anxiety and chaos.

Both children and adults have safety needs but could vary greatly.

Need for belongingness and love:
Belongingness:

Love:

need to feel wanted and accepted by others.

begins selfishly with seeking love from others, referred to as D-love (deficiency love). Once capable of loving others, B-love (being love).

Esteem needs:

Divided into 2 sets

1. Esteem based on

2. Esteem based on

respect for our own competence, independence and accomplishments.

others’ evaluations (recognition, status, fame, dominance, appreciation)

Meta needs

Self-actualization and cognitive understanding: Self-actualization:

Need to reach one’s fullest potential and highest level of functioning.

Maslow believed that those high in self- actualization are more capable of giving affection, intimately relating to

others, more capable of mature love and are less resentful to former lovers.

The Jonah complex:

as a result of fear, reluctance to make full use of one’s intellectual abilities and potential because achievement may bring on new responsibilities and duties we cannot handle and the fear of the unknown.

Conditions for Self-Actualization

Maslow see’s poor socialization practices among young people as the main source that hinders movement toward self-actualization.

Believes the environment must allow for those basic needs to be met as well as be

supportive and guide behavior toward positive methods

Believes that without basic freedoms such as freedom of speech, satisfaction of the basic needs is virtually impossible.

Self-transcendence:

seeks to further a cause beyond the self and experience a communion with others and nature and goes beyond the boundaries of the self.

Transcending self-actualizing person:

the most fully developed psychologically healthy person who can transcend their own selfish concerns and work to better humankind.

Personal Orientation Inventory (POI):

self-report questionnaire that reflects the values and behavior of major importance, determines extent of self-actualization.

Therapy (Hint: Maslow)

Acted as friends.

Provided client with respect, love and feelings of belongingness.

Must be nonthreatening and supportive.

Problems with Maslow’s assessment techniques:

1:Assessment procedures for self-actualizers are ambiguous and imprecise.

2:No one knows how Maslow assessed those he used in his research.

3:It is believed that Maslow simply based self- actualizing characteristics on his own value system.

Client-centered therapy: (Hint: Rogers)

Part of Humanism:

starts and ends with the subjective experience (conscious self perceptions) of the individual, where their subjective reality serves as the basis for all the individual’s judgments and behavior. The therapist’s interpretation is insignificant.

emphasizes people’s potential for self-fulfillment.

Humanistic therapies:

• focus on the present and future, not the past

• focus on feelings as they occur rather than childhood origins

• focus on the conscious rather than the unconscious

• focus on taking immediate responsibility for one’s feelings or actions rather than uncovering hidden issues

• focus on promoting growth instead of curing illness

• changed the term from “patients” to “clients”

Self-actualizing tendency:

an active, controlling drive toward fulfillment of our potentials that enables us to maintain and enhance ourselves.

Believed this tendency is both biological and psychological

Personality Development

Believes self-actualization begins in infancy.

Organismic valuing process:

According to Rogers, when individuals utilize their actualization tendency as a criterion in making judgments about the worth of a given experience.

The Fully functioning person:

individuals who are utilizing their potentials to the maximum degree, are engaged in self-realization or self actualization.

According to Rogers, the fully functioning person has the following characteristics:

1:They are open to experience.

2:They are characterized by existential living.

3:They trust their organisms.

4:They are creative.

5:They live richer lives than do other people.

Emerging persons:

people whose interpersonal relationships are characterized by honesty, cooperation, and concern for others, avoid facades and hypocrisy, welcome change, and opt for growth even when difficult.

According to Rogers, the emerging person has

the following characteristics:

1:They are honest and open.

2:They are indifferent to material comforts and

rewards.

3:They are caring persons.

4:They have a deep distrust of cognitively based science and technology that uses science to exploit and harm nature and people.

5:They have a trust in their own experience and profound distrust of all external authority.

The social self and the true self

Social Self:

True Self:

an organized set of characteristics that the individual perceives as being unique to themselves and is primarily acquired through contact with others.

is one’s self-concept based on our actual feelings about our experiences.

Rogers believed that the formation of a healthy self-concept was an ongoing process shaped by a person's life experiences

People with a stable sense of self tend to have

greater confidence and cope more effectively with life's challenges.

One’s self-concept can be affected by the:

As a result, we live our life based on:

Need for positive regard: learned or innate tendency to see and need approval from others.

Conditions of worth: experiences and behaviors are acceptable only if they meet with approval from others.

Rogers believed the ultimate goal of his person (client)-centered

approach was to change the person’s self-concept.

According to Rogers, the ideal condition for development of a healthy self-concept is

Unconditional positive regard: a total caring or prizing of the person for what and who one is, without any reservations or conditions of worth.

Rogers suggested that self-concept begins to develop during childhood and is heavily influenced by parenting. Parents who offer their children unconditional love and regard are more likely to foster a healthy

self-concept. Children who feel that they have to “earn” their parents' love may end up with low self-esteem and feelings of unworthiness.

The problem is that our image of who we think we should be does not always match up with our perceptions of who we actually are. When our self-image does not

line up with our ideal self, we are in a state of incongruence.

Rogers believed that by receiving unconditional positive regard and pursuing self-actualization, however, people can come close to reaching a state of congruence. A Fully Functioning Person

Like many other aspects of his theory, unconditional positive regard plays a critical role in the development of full functioning. Those who receive nonjudgmental support and love can

develop the self-esteem and confidence to be the best person they can be and live up to their full potential

Assessment

Q-sort:

measures the discrepancies between the actual and ideal selves.

Rogers believed there are 3 essential ingredients provided by the therapist in order to facilitate the therapeutic relationship:

1:Therapist must be genuine.

2:Therapist must be empathetic

3:Therapist must feel unconditional positive regard for the client

Rogers believed the therapist must be engaged in active listening.

1:Paraphrase

2:Invite clarification

3:Reflect feelings

With his emphasis on human potential, Carl Rogers had an enormous influence on both psychology and education. Beyond that, he is considered by many to be one of the

most influential psychologists of the 20th century. More therapists cite Rogers as their primary influence than any other psychologist

What is a Trait?

A trait is a personality characteristic that meets three criteria:

~consistent

~stable

~vary from person to person.

Based on this definition, a trait can be thought

of as a relatively stable characteristic that (hint: Trait Perspective)

causes individuals to behave in certain ways.

The way psychologists have thought about personality, including how they define traits, has evolved over time. Unique to this theory, the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals.

The combination and interaction of various traits form a

personality that is unique to each person.

Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring those individual personality characteristics.

If someone asked you to describe your personality, you would most likely list descriptive terms such as "outgoing," "kind" and “creative”.

All of these represent personality traits.

The first trait theory was proposed

by psychologist Gordon Allport in 1936.

Allport found that one English-language dictionary contained more than 4,000 words which described various personality traits.

Allport believed that personality consists of relatively enduring characteristics, called

traits, that influence how people think, feel, and behave.

He (Allport) argued that every individual has a unique combination of traits. Therefore, understanding personality requires studying both general characteristics

shared by people and the distinctive qualities of each person.

Allport categorized these traits into three levels:

cardinal, central, and secondary

Allport’s Cardinal Traits

Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and dominating, usually developing later in life. They tend to define a person to such an extent that their names become synonymous with their personality.

A cardinal trait is a dominant personality characteristic that influences almost every aspect of a person's behavior. It can become the defining feature of an individual's personality. (Part 1)

Characteristics:

Extremely influential, pervasive, and often recognizable in many situations.

A cardinal trait is a dominant personality characteristic that influences almost every aspect of a person's behavior. It can become the defining feature of an individual's personality. (part 2)

Frequency:

Relatively rare; not everyone develops a single dominant cardinal trait.

A cardinal trait is a dominant personality characteristic that influences almost every aspect of a person's behavior. It can become the defining feature of an individual's personality. (part 3)

Example:

A person whose life is consistently guided by compassion may devote much of their time to helping others.

Examples of Cardinal Traits?

Altruism, Ambition, Honesty, Greed

Central Traits

These general characteristics form basic personality foundations. While central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Descriptions such as "intelligent," "honest," "shy," and "anxious" refer to central traits.

are the major personality characteristics that describe an individual's general behavior, feelings, and ways of thinking

Characteristics of central traits (part 1)

Common:

Most people possess several central traits

Characteristics of central traits (part 2)

Descriptive:

They help us understand and describe a person's general personality.

Characteristics of central traits (part 3)

Moderately influential:

They affect behavior across many situations but do not necessarily control every aspect of life.