ap 2 practical

Name the three layers in the blood vessels?

Tunica intima,tunica media and tunica externa

What are the two types of capillary beds?

Vascular shunt and true capillaries

What specialized capillary bed structures help conserve blood flow?

Vascular shunt and precapillary sphincters

What is precapillary sphincters?

The rings of smooth muscle fibers located at the root of true capillaries that act like valves to control whether blood flows into the capillary network or gets diverted straight through the vascular shunt

What is vascular shunt?

The fast bypass lane. It’s the metarteriole plus the thoroughfare channel. blood goes straight from the arteriole to the venue without stopping to exchange anything.

What is true capillaries?

Actual microscopic vessels involved in exchange(Where oxygen, nutrients, and waste are traded between the blood and your tissues)

Normal blood pressure?

Less than 120/ less than 80

High blood pressure stage 1

130-139/ 80-89

High blood pressure stage 2

140 or higher / 90 or higher

Hypertensive crisis

Higher than 180/ higher than 120

Hypotensive

90/60

How does the timing of the QRS complex and ECG coincide with the pulse?

The QRS complex is the electrical depolarization of the ventricles, and because electrical activity in the heart always proceeds mechanical contraction(excitation-contraction coupling), the QRS triggers the ventricles to squeeze and eject blood into the aorta, creating a pressure wave that travels through the arteries and is felt as the pulse of fraction of a second later, with the delay, growing the farther of the pulse site from the heart.

How does exercise affect heart rate and the pulse amplitude?

Exercise increases both heart rate and pulse amplitude because the working muscles need more oxygen so the heart beats faster and more forcefully, pushing more blood into the arteries with each and causing a larger pulse amplitude

What are the korotoff sounds? What does the first sound indicate in the last sound?

Korotoff sounds are blood rushing turbulently through the brachial artery as the cuff gradually lets it open and the first and last sounds give you the systolic and the diastolic blood pressure

How does body positioning impact blood pressure readings?

Body positioning, affects blood pressure readings because of gravity. Keep your back, supported feet, flat legs and crossed and the arm resting at heart level. If the arm is too low, the number reads high, and if it’s too high, the number reads low. And standing up suddenly from a sitting or lying position, can temporarily lower blood pressure (orthostatic hypotension) because blood pools in the legs

What physiological events represent systolic and diastolic blood?

Systolic blood pressure represents the peak arterial pressure produced when the ventricles contract and eject blood into the aorta(Ventricular Systole), While diastolic blood pressure represents the lowest arterial pressure reached when the ventricles relax and refill with blood( ventricular diastole)

What is peripheral resistance?

How hard it is for blood to flow through your blood vessels, mainly the small arteries. The narrower or more squeezed the vessels are, the harder the heart has to push, and the higher your blood pressure goes

Factors that cause peripheral resistance

• Blood viscosity (thicker /stickier blood)

• Total Blood vessel length(longer vessel,greater the resistance)

• Blood vessel Diameter(vasoconstriction or vasodilation)

How do you compute the main arterial pressure? (MAP)

(systolic-diastolic) / 3 + (diastolic)

What is mean arterial pressure?

MAP stands for average pressure, pushing blood through the arteries during one full heartbeat

What are varicose veins?

Veins that are abnormally dilated become of incompetent leaky valves. They happen due to multiple factors this include hereditary, prolonged standing in one position, obesity, or pregnancy. The blood pools in lower limbs, weakening valves; affects more than 15% of adults

Is the flow of lymph fluid to the heart unidirectional or bidirectional?

It is unidirectional!!! Lymph only flows one way; From the tissues toward the heart. NEVER BACK!!!

How are dietary fats absorbed from the small intestine?

The lacteals in the intestinal wall, absorb dietary fats in the small intestine

Explain the functions of lacteals

The functions of lacteals is that they are lymphatic capillaries in the villi of the small intestine. They absorbed dietary fats and fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) and transport them through the lymph to the bloodstream

How was interstitial fluid taken into the lymphatic system?

Interstitial fluid is taken into lymphatic system through lymphatic capillaries where rising tissue fluid pressure pushes open one way flap like endothelial openings so that fluid, proteins, and a debris can enter as lymph and the flaps then close to prevent backflow while muscle movement, breathing and valves carry the lymph towards the veins

What regions of the body do the right lymphatic duct?

The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right side of the head, neck and chest, and the right arm into the right subclavian vein

What regions of the body do the thoracic lymphatic duct?

The thoracic duct drains the rest of the body, including the entire lower body and the left side of the head, neck and chest, and left arm into the left subclavian vein

Where do B cells mature?

Bone marrow

Where do T cells mature

Thymus

What structure in the lymphatic system filters lymph fluid?

Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid. Lymph nodes filter lymph by slowly, passing it through internal sinuses or macrophages, remove bacteria and debris and lymphocytes detect antigens, so that cleaned lymph exits through the efferent vessel and continues toward the vein

Define antibody mediated (humoral)

B cells have receptors that bind to a pathogen, which activates the B cell into a plasma cell that releases antibodies to fight the infection

Define cell mediated immunity?

T cells receptor binds to an antigen displayed on the surface of an infected cell, causing the T cell to directly attack and destroy that infected cell, while some T Cells become memory T cells that remember the pathogen for future infections

What are the roles of the spleen?

Spleen is an organ that cleans your blood and helps fight infection. It removes old blood cells and germs, and it’s immune cell (lymphocytes) watch for invaders and respond to them

What area in the spleen are WBC found?

WBC specifically the B and T lymphocytes, are found in the white pulp of the spleen, where they detect antigens in the blood and carry out the immune response

What is the term used to describe an infection of the tonsils?

Tonsillitis; in acute inflammation of the palatine tonsils, usually caused by streptococcus infection

What are the names of the three types of tonsils?

Linguinal,palatine, pharyngeal

Cervical and lymph nodes

Lymph from head and neck

Axillary lymph nodes

Upper limb and breast

The thoracic lymph nodes

Mediastinum,lungs and airway

Abdominal lymph nodes

Urinary and reproductive systems

Intestinal and mesenteric lymph nodes

Digestive tract

Inguinal lymph nodes

Entire lower limb

Popliteal lymph nodes

The leg proper

Trace the path of lymph from a lymph capillary to where they empty in the subclavian vein.

Lymphatic capillaries → Collecting vessels → 6 Lymphatic trunks → 2 Collecting ducts → Subclavian veins (→ Right atrium)

State the function of the lymphatic system

Return fluid that has leaked from the blood vessels back to the blood, using lymphatic vessels to carry the lymph and lymph nodes to cleanse it, while it’s lymphoid organs and tissue support the immune system by causing phagocytic cells and lymphocytes

Where do you find lymphoid nodules in the body?

Lymphoid nodules, are dense masses of lymphocytes and macrophages, they are found in lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, and in the ilium of the small intestine, where they are called payer patches

Nose

Air comes in here, get warmed, moisten, and cleaned

Pharynx (throat)

Air passes through on its way down

Larynx (voice box)

Air passes through, makes your voice, keeps food out of the airway

Trachea (windpipe)

Main tube that carries air down; Cartilage rings keep it open

Bronchi

Two branches of the trachea that send air into each lung

Lungs

Where oxygen goes into the blood and carbon dioxide comes out ( gas exchange)

What does the right lung have?

It has three lobes known as the superior middle and inferior. It also has two fissures known as the horizontal and oblique fissure

What does the left lung have?

It has two lobes known as the superior and inferior and it has 1 fissure known as the oblique fissure

Simple squamous

Alveoli

Simple Cuboidal

Smallest bronchioles

Simple ciliated columnar

Larger bronchioles

Olfactory epithelium

Roof of nasal cavity

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi

Stratified squamous

Oropharynx,laryngopharynx,vocal cords/epiglottis

What is the nasal cavity epithelium?

It is lined by respiratory epithelium (Pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells, whose motile cilia sweep mucous out) in most of cavity, olfactory epithelium (Pseudostratified columnar with smell receptor cells and no goblet cells) in the roof, whose receptor cell have non motile cilia that detect odors rather than move mucus.

Respiratory epithelium

Lines, most of the nasal cavity and a pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells, whose motile cilia sweep trapped mucus and debris away

Olfactory epithelium

Lines the roof and is pseudostratified columnar with smell receptors cells and no goblet cells, so it detects odors, instead of cleaning the air

Visually distinguish an alveolus from the alveolar sac

The alveolar sac is a grape like cluster while the alveolus is the singular grape

What type of cells can be found in alveolus

Contain squamous type one cells, which cover about 95% of the surface and carry out gas exchange, and cubodial type two cells, which repair damaged epithelium, and secrete surfactant to keep the alveoli from collapsing

Know which bones form the nasal Septum and split cavity into two sections

The nasal septum, which splits the nasal cavity into right and left nasal fossae, is formed by the vomer inferiorly and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone superiorly

What cartilage is formed the external nose and nasal septum

The external nose is formed by the septal cartilage, lateral process, and the minor and major alar cartilages while the nasal septum is formed by the septal cartilage

Know the function and structures of the external nose and the nasal cavity

The external nose warms, cleanses and humidifies air, detects odors, and resonates the voice, and it is shaped by bone and hyaline cartilage, extending from the nares to the choane, while, the nasal cavity is divided by the septum into two nasal fossae and contains the vestibule and vibrissae,the superior,middle and inferior conchae with meatuses between them,olfactory epithelium in the roof, and respiratory epithelium that’s clears mucus toward the pharynx

Nasopharynx

Pseudostratified columnar

oropharynx

Stratified squamous

Larynopharynx

Stratified squamous

Which other organ sit in front of and behind to the trachea and larynx

The sternum is anterior to the trachea, the trachea is anterior to the esophagus, but posterior to the sternum, and the esophagus is posterior to both the trachea and the sternum, while the larynx sits between the pharynx and the trachea

Trachea

Pseudostratified columnar

Bronchi

Pseudostratified columnar

Alveoli

Squamous type 1 alveolar and cuboidal type 2 alveolar

Know if gas exchange would happen in the respiratory or conducting division of the respiratory system

The conducting division only carries air from the nostrils through the major bronchioles, without exchanging gases, while the respiratory division made up of the alveoli and other distal gas exchange regions , Is where oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves it

What is the function of goblet cells in the respiratory epithelium?

Goblet cells in the respiratory epithelium, secrete mucus that traps inhaled particles, and neighboring ciliated cells propel the mucus toward the pharynx where it is swallowed or spat out, forming the mucociliary escalator

Examine how the bicarbonate buffer system works in the blood

It helps maintain blood pH meaning it keeps the blood from getting too acidic or too basic

What enzyme catalyze the reaction of CO2 to bicarbonate and the reverse

The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction of co2 to bicarbonate and the reverse

Chemical formula

CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻

Think about how much air is moving during tidal breathing

About 500 mL of air moves in and out with each quiet breath

Explain mechanics of normal breathing

Normal breathing works by changing the volume of the chest ( thoracic cavity), which changes the pressure in the lungs. Air then moves from higher to lower pressure.

What does this mean for inspiration and expiration?

During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercoastal muscles contract, which expands the thoracic cavity and lowers the pressure in the lungs so air flows in, while during expiration, they relax, which shrinks the thoracic cavity and raises the pressure so air flows out.

How do the pressures differ to allow air to flow in or out of the lungs?

During inspiration, the pressure inside the lungs is lower than atmospheric pressure, so air flows in, and during expiration the pressure inside lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure, so air flows out

Boyles law

Pressure and volume are inversely related