ACU BIOL-121

Cellular physiology

Properties that characterise all living cells/ properties unique to special cell types

Intergrative physiology

Activities of different tissues and organs / coordination of functions of the human body

Antigen

Anything capable of inducing an immunity. Anything foreign to as the host.

Non specific body defences

General defence/ attack all antigens. (Inborn, first and second line defences).

Specific body defences

Specialist/ targeted defence against one type of antigen (acquired during life)

First line of defence

Non specific, keep every invader out/deny entry the same way

Second line of defence

Non specific, any invader inside is attacked the same way (phagocytosis, fever, inflammation, antimicrobial compounds)

Phagocytes

cell eating, WBC patrol body looking for invaders, attracted to affected site

Inflammation

localised response, damaged cells send out chemical messages, body responds (process supoorted by phagocytosis)

Interferon

Interferes with viral replication and activate immune cells

Complement

A set of plasma proteins that complement all aspects of the immune response.

Third line of defence

adaptive/ acquired immunity, develops on exposure to a particular antigen, uses B and T lymphocytes made in bone marrow

Antibody classes

IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM

IgM antibodies

First one made in new infection, big, lasts for short time

IgG antibodies

Memory antibody- quickly made in second/further infections. Smaller, crosses placenta

IgA antibodies

On mucous membranes (mucosa), in blood/breast milk

IgE antibodies

Active in allergies, protection from parasites through inflammation

T cells

cell kills abnormal cells directly- dont make antibody

Cytoxic T cells

Destroy foreign looking cells/cancer cells

T helper cells

help all immune cells and activities

T suppressor cells

suppress overactive immune response

Memory T cell

specific with instant response to exposed antigens

Active immunity

Makes own antibodies, memory cells have recipe, can do any time needed. EG

Passive immunity

Ready made antibodies given, cannot make if needed again

Naturally acquired immunity

come into contact with pathogen normally & get sick, antibodies cross placenta

Artificially acquired immunity

needs outside intervention, vaccine

Naturally acquired active immunity

Getting chicken pox, and being immune for life

Artificially acquired active immunity

Vaccination for immunisation, long term protection

Naturally acquired passive immunity

Mums antibodies cross placenta or in breast milk; when they run out no more protection.

Artificially acquired passive immunity

give antibodies made by someone else to protect

temporarily against an infection; when they run out

no more protection

Sensory neurons

Knows what is happening

Integration neurons

makes decisions

Motor neurons

Does something about it

Afferent (sensory info)

Brings sensory information to CNS from receptors in peripheral tissues and organs

Efferent (Motor Commands)

Somatic nervous system (SNS) and Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Somatic nervous systems

Controls voluntary and involuntary (reflexes) muscle skeletal contractions

Autonomic nervous system

Parasympathetic & sympathetic divisions / Controls subconscious actions, contractions of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, and glandular secretions

Histology

Neural tissue contains two kinds of cells (neurons/neuroglia)

Neurons

Cells that send and receive signals

Neuroglia

Aka glial cells: cells that support and protect neurons

Dedrites

Receive input from other neurons and convey it to cell body.

Axon

Carries electrical signal (action potential) away from cell body to other neurons or effectors

Axon terminals

some swell → synaptic end bulbs

synaptic vesicles (little swellings) release neurotransmitters

Synapse

Area where a neuron communicates with another cell (Presynaptic cell, post-synaptic cell & synaptic cleft)

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals, excite or inhibit the impulse or its effect & drugs may mimic, enhance or dampen down these

Nerves

Many cells lie together, their cell bodies look like a swelling & their axons are called nerve fibres

Bundle of fibres

In CNS: tract... In PNS: nerve

Collection of cell bodies

CNS: nucleus... PNS: ganglion

Myelin sheath

Made by glial cells, fatty, white sheath around axon, electrically insulates axon & increases speed of transmission

Action potential

when the membrane potential (ie the charge difference) changes the balance changes. Net balance goes from -70mV to +30mV. but it must go back again

(the signal that makes this happen)

Functions of skeletal system

Protection, support, leverage, stroage, blood cell production and acid-base balance

Bone classifications

long bones, flat bones, structural, irregular, short & sesamoid

Forms of bone

compact bone, spongy bone

Periosteum

Membrane covering bone, point of entry for nerve and blood supply, protects bone, assists with fracture repair and thickening of bone.

Bone marrow

Red: Produce red blood cells

Yellow: Storage of mineral and lipids

Bone remodelling

Continuous bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts (repairs micro-fractures, release minerals into blood, reshapes bones in response to use)

Calcitonin

Bone growth hormone: Increase osteoblast activity/ decrease osteoclast activity= bone deposition

Parathyroid hormone

Decrease osteoblast activity/ increase osteoclast activity= bone resorption

Growth hormone

during infancy and childhood, steady release of GH stimulates bone growth, increased release during adolescence

Thyroid hormone

Enhances the effects of GH

Sex Hormones

At puberty, male and female sex hormones are released in increasing amounts → initially stimulates rapid bone growth (ie, growth spurt)

Estrogen more powerful than testosterone → girls grow faster

Testosterone levels remain high for longer → boys grow taller

Skull

8 cranial bones, 14 facial bones

Vertebral column

24 vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx

Thoracic cage

24 ribs, sternum

Function of axial skeletal

Supports and protects organs in body cavities.

Attaches to muscles of Head, neck, and trunk, Respiration

& Appendicular skeleton

Articultations

A joint/articulation occurs where two or more bones meet (regardless of movement)

Bony joints/ Synostosis joints

An immovable joint formed when the gap between two bones ossify, making it a single bone. Bony joints can start off being fibrous or cartilaginous joints which later ossify

Fibrous joints/ Synarthrosis joints

Occurs where two adjacent bones (ie, bones that are next to each other) are bound together by collagen fibres

Cartilaginous joints / amphiarthrosis joints

Occurs where two bones are linked together by cartilage

Synovial joints

Freely movable joints. Two adjacent bones are separated by a fibrous joint capsule, lined by synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid (joint cavity)

Ball and socket joint

most freely movable joint (multi-axial)

smooth spherical head of one bone fits nicely into the cup-like socket on the other

Condyloid joints

movement in two planes (bi-axial). oval convex surface of one bone fits into a similarly shaped concave surface on the other

Saddle joint

movement in two planes (bi-axial). both articulating surfaces have a saddle shaped depression

Gliding joints

movement usually in two planes (bi-axial). articulating surfaces are flat or slightly concave and convex

Hinge joints

freely moving, but in one plane only (mono-axial). one bone has a convex surface and the other a concave surface, but these surfaces are not spherical

Pivot joints

movement in one plane (mono-axial), bone spins on longitudinal axis

Cerebrum

Left & right hemispheres. Grey matter outside/ white matter inside

Frontal lobe

Intellect, cognition, personality, conscience

Temporal

facial recognitio, language

parietal lobe

sensory processing

Occipital lobe

visual processing

Diecephalon

Thalamus & hypothalamus: receive, relay and control

Cerebellum

Control of posture, proprioception, balance, motor coordination

Brain stem

Regulates essential functions in brain

Midbrain

reflex centre for head and eye movements

Pons

Control of respiration

Medulla

Pathway between higher and lower centres. Control centre for HR, BP, RR, vomiting and coughing.

Cranial nerves

Direct connection between brain and PNS. 12 pairs. Vagus does whole body.

Protection for CNS

Vranial bones, vertebrae, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood brain barrier (BBB)

Meninges

Dura mater: Outer layer-lines the bone.

Arachnoid: middle layer

Pia mater: inner layer- lines brain & spinal cord.

Spaces

Epidural (between dura & bone), Subdural (between dura mater & arachnoid) and subarachnoid (between arachnoid & pia mater).

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Cushions delicate structures. Transpirts nurtients, chemical messengers and wastes.

Brain ventricles

Allow circulation of fluid, continuous with spinal cord.

Spinal cord functions

Transmit info up and down CNS, Info from and messages to peripheries, reflex actions to protect body

Cross section of spinal cord

Grey matter inside, white matter outside. Central canal for CSF, nerve root where spinal nerve connects to spinal cord.

Spinal root

Anterior/ventral root, posterior/dorsal root. Dorsal root ganglia.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Operates without conscious control, controls visceral effectors, controlled by hypothalamus & medulla oblongata

Sympathetic division

Flight or fight, prepares body for emergency, widespread & long lasting effects

Parasympathetic division

Rest & repose (conserve energy), brain stem & sacral segments, craniosacral outflow

Neurotransmitter (synapse)

Carry impulse across synaptic gap. EG acetylcholine and adrenaline/noradrenaline