Anatomy & Physiology Modules 1–4: Cells, Tissues, Skin, Bones

What are the 7 characteristics of living organisms?

Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition

What is homeostasis?

A self-regulating process to maintain stable internal conditions.

What is negative feedback?

A response that counteracts the original stimulus.

What hormone triggers muscle contraction?

Oxytocin

List the 6 levels of structural organization in biology.

1. Chemical, 2. Cellular, 3. Tissue, 4. Organs, 5. Organ system, 6. Organismal level

What is simple diffusion?

The movement of substances across a membrane from high to low concentration without energy.

What is the role of the plasma membrane?

It is selectively permeable and regulates the entry and exit of substances.

What is facilitated diffusion?

The process of moving substances across a membrane down their concentration gradient via specific proteins.

Define osmosis.

The passive movement of water across a membrane from high to low concentration.

What is active transport?

The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring ATP.

What is endocytosis?

The process of bringing molecules into the cytoplasm.

What is phagocytosis?

A type of endocytosis known as 'cell eating' where cells engulf large particles.

What is pinocytosis?

A type of endocytosis known as 'cell drinking' where cells take in liquid.

What is exocytosis?

The process of moving substances out of the cell by fusing vesicles with the plasma membrane.

What is catabolism?

The breakdown of molecules to produce ATP.

What is anabolism?

The synthesis of molecules, using ATP for recovery.

What are the major cytoplasmic organelles?

Mitochondria, Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi Complex, Lysosomes.

What is the function of the nucleus?

It serves as the control center of the cell, containing genetic information.

What occurs during interphase of the cell cycle?

The cell grows and DNA replicates.

What happens in prophase during mitosis?

Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

What is the role of epithelial tissue?

To cover and line surfaces, arranged in sheets.

What are the types of epithelial layers?

Simple, Stratified, and Pseudostratified.

What are the shapes of epithelial cells?

Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar, and Transitional.

What is the function of connective tissue?

Binding, support, protection, compartmentalization, energy reserves, and transport.

What are the three types of connective tissue?

Loose, Dense, and Specialized (like cartilage and bone).

What is the function of adipose tissue?

To store fat and provide insulation and support for organs.

What is the role of the epidermis in skin?

To protect underlying tissues and prevent water loss.

What are the functions of the skin?

Protection, temperature regulation, blood reservoir, sensation, and vitamin D synthesis.

What is hair primarily composed of?

Dead keratinized cells.

What are the two main layers of skin?

Epidermis and dermis.

What pigment gives skin its brown color?

Melanin.

What are the two types of sweat glands?

Eccrine (watery) and apocrine (viscous).

What is the function of sebaceous glands?

To secrete sebum (oil).

What is the anatomical position?

Standing with palms facing forward.

What does the term 'anterior' refer to?

The front of the body.

What is the function of the skeletal system?

Support, protect organs, movement, mineral storage, triglyceride storage, and red blood cell production.

What are the four types of bones?

Long, short, flat, and irregular bones.

What is the diaphysis of a long bone?

The long main shaft.

What is the role of osteoblasts?

To synthesize bone matrix.

What is the primary function of the periosteum?

To protect and nourish the bone.

What is the medullary cavity?

The hollow center of a long bone that contains yellow bone marrow.

What is the difference between compact and spongy bone?

Compact bone is dense and provides strength, while spongy bone is lighter and contains red bone marrow.

What is intramembranous ossification?

The process where flat bones develop from mesenchyme cells.

What is endochondral ossification?

The process where cartilage is replaced by bone in most long bones.

What is the function of the diaphragm?

To separate the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

What are the major body cavities?

Dorsal (cranial and spinal) and ventral (thoracic and abdominopelvic).

What is the role of calcium in bones?

To provide hardness.

What are the three types of joints based on movement?

Synarthrosis (no movement), amphiarthrosis (slight movement), and diarthrosis (freely movable).

What is the structure of a synovial joint?

It includes an articular capsule, synovial membrane, and is filled with synovial fluid.

What is the function of the axial skeleton?

To support the head, neck, and trunk.

What bones make up the appendicular skeleton?

The limbs and girdles (shoulder and pelvic).

What is the function of osteoclasts?

To reabsorb and break down bone.

What is the significance of the epiphyseal plate?

It is the growth plate where bone lengthening occurs.

What are the main components of the vertebral column?

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.

What is the role of the cranial cavity?

To house the brain.

What is the function of the abdominal cavity?

To contain organs such as the stomach, liver, and intestines.

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

What happens during metaphase in mitosis?

Chromosomes align along the cell's equatorial plane.

What is the primary function of nervous tissue?

To detect environmental changes and transmit electrical impulses.

What happens to a red blood cell in a hypertonic solution?

Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink or crenate.

What does the anatomical term 'posterior' refer to?

Toward or at the back of the body.

What is the primary function of mitochondria?

To generate energy in the form of ATP via cellular respiration.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Location: Air sacs of lungs, blood vessels. Function: Rapid diffusion and filtration.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Location: Kidney tubules, gland ducts. Function: Secretion and absorption.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Location: Digestive tract lining. Function: Absorption and mucus secretion.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Location: Skin surface, mouth, esophagus. Function: Protection against abrasion.

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Location: Sweat and salivary gland ducts. Function: Protection and secretion.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Location: Male urethra, large gland ducts. Function: Protection and secretion.

Macrophages

Function: Phagocytic cells that engulf debris and pathogens in connective tissue.

Mast Cells

Function: Release histamine and heparin during inflammatory responses.

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Structure: Parallel collagen fibers. Function: Provides strong attachment (tendons, ligaments).

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Structure: Randomly arranged collagen fibers. Function: Resists multi-directional tension (dermis).

Hyaline Cartilage

Structure: Smooth matrix with chondrocytes. Function: Provides flexible support and reduces friction.

Elastic Cartilage

Structure: Rich in elastic fibers. Function: Maintains shape while allowing flexibility (external ear).

Stratum Corneum

Location: Most superficial epidermal layer. Function: Outermost barrier of dead keratinized cells.

Stratum Lucidum

Location: Clear layer found only in thick skin (palms, soles).

Stratum Granulosum

Location: Middle layer of epidermis. Function: Cells undergo keratinization and die.

Stratum Spinosum

Location: Above stratum basale. Function: Provides strength and flexibility with desmosomes.

Stratum Basale

Location: Deepest epidermal layer. Function: Rapid cell division (stem cells).

Melanocytes

Location: Stratum basale. Function: Produce melanin to protect against UV radiation.

Endosteum

Location: Internal membrane lining the medullary cavity and trabeculae.

Articular Cartilage

Location: Covers bone epiphyses at joint surfaces. Function: Cushions and reduces friction.

Intramembranous Ossification

bone tissue develops from mesenchyme cells

Endochondral Ossification

long bone, replaces cartilage with bone

Maxilla

Skull bone forming the upper jaw and central facial structure.

Zygomatic Bone

Facial bone forming the prominence of the cheek.

Nasal Bones

Small paired bones forming the bridge of the nose.

Nasal Conchae

Scroll-like bones in nasal cavity that warm, moisten, and filter air.

Mandible

Lower jawbone; the only movable bone of the skull.

Vertebral Arch

Structure: Formed by pedicles and laminae. Function: Protects the spinal cord.

Pedicle

Segment of vertebral arch attaching directly to the vertebral body.

Lamina

Broad, flat portion of vertebral arch extending between transverse and spinous processes.

Vertebral Foramen

Central opening in a vertebra through which the spinal cord passes.

Intervertebral Foramen

Side opening between adjacent vertebrae for spinal nerve passage.

Synarthrosis

Functional joint classification: Immovable joint (e.g., skull sutures).

Amphiarthrosis

Functional joint classification: Slightly movable joint (e.g., pubic symphysis).

Diarthrosis

Functional joint classification: Freely movable joint (e.g., shoulder, knee).

What are the 4 abdominopelvic quadrants?

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ), Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ), Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ), Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ).

What major organs are located in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)?

Liver and gallbladder.

What major organs are located in the Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)?

Stomach and spleen.