POSC017 final terms flashcards!

Abertura

A Portuguese term borrowed from Brazilian experience, describing a political opening that may or may not lead to democratization

Absolute Poverty

A term used by the United Nations to describe material hardship, standard of living beneath human dignity. Crushing poverty in which people lack access to basic life necessities. Also defined as living on less than $1.90 per day .

Accountability

A characteristic of democracy where the government is held responsible for its actions (includes horizontal institutional checks and vertical citizen oversight)

Acephalous Society

A "headless" or "stateless society" governed by committee or consensus rather than a full-time executive. (no full-time executive)

African Lions

African economies attempting to break dependency by moving into manufactured goods, technology, and services. They are several fast growing or economically dominant African nations. A combination of the neoliberal and developmental state models.

Amnesty

A pardon granted by governments to individuals and even groups of offenders as a gesture of reconciliation, often during a transition/regime change.

Anarchism

An ideology viewing the state as the primary source of inequality and advocating for the abolition of the state.

Aspiration Gap

The disparity between what is desired or hoped for and what can actually be attained. This concept helps us understand the consequences of unmet expectations.

Asian Tigers (Four Tigers)

Highly developed economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, known for rapid growth through state-led capitalism and explosive economic growth between 1960s-1990s.

Asian Cubs

5 rapidly growing Southeast Asia nations (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, & Vietnam). They are defined by efforts to replicate the export-driven, industrialized economic models of the “4 Asian Tigers.”

Austerity Plan

A regimen of spending cuts (often in social welfare) required by the IMF to reduce deficits; another name for structural adjustment. This denotes the hardship associated with implementing such measures.

Authoritarianism

A (nondemocratic) political system characterized by concentrated power, limited political freedoms, and the suppression of dissent, often contrasting sharply with democratic governance. Rulers depend on coercion rather than popular legitimacy .

Bourgeoisie

In a Marxist framework, the property-owning class that exerts influence over the working class. French word bourg 4 “market town,” this became an important term of analysis in Marxist socialism, separating working class (AKA proletariat) from landowning merchant classes and capitalist entrepreneurs (AKA the bourgeoisie). In Marxist framework, the bourgeoisie will be eliminated by class struggle to produce a classless, communist society.

Capacity

The state's ability to fulfill basic tasks and "get things done". The ability of a government to effectively implement its policies, maintain law & order, and provide public goods/services to citizens.

Case Study

A detailed examination of a specific phenomenon or state used to identify causal connections. This method seeks to demonstrate causal connections by tracing them though a series of cases, which are then compared.

Caudillo

A political strongman, typically from a military background .

Charismatic Legitimacy

Authority based on personal devotion to a leader perceived as extraordinary or heroic. Subjects recognize rulers as legitimate due to exceptional personal qualities.

Civil Society

Voluntary social interactions (NGOs, social movements) that operate independently of the government. Civil society organizations are commonly recognized as intermediaries between the government and family. As a concept, civil society (AKA public space) includes non gov. organizations, social movements, and professional associations.

Class

A group linked by occupation, social status, or economic background .

Cleavage

A socially supported division between groups in society who are significant enough to have forms of expression. Often based on ethnicity, socioeconomic factors/gender. Scholars have highlighted two dominant patterns of such divisions. Coinciding cleavages stack divisions (religion, race, class), while crosscutting cleavages disperse them. Coinciding cleavages are clear and distinct, in which multiple competing viewpoints or points of division line up in clearly divided categories, presenting a situation that is more ripe for conflict.

Cold War

The intense US-Soviet rivalry (1947–1991) that shaped global politics through proxy wars and strategic alliances. Economic competition between the U.S and USSR and their allies (Western vs Eastern Bloc) that stopped full scale direct military.

Communism

An ideology promoting social equality through the elimination of private property and market forces. Socioeconomic philosophy and system of government.

Comparative Advantage

The liberal principle that efficiency is maximized through specialization in production based on natural resources and labor .

Comparative Studies

An approach identifying patterns by comparing experiences across two or more countries. This approach seeks to understand the complexity of human experience by adopting an eclectic, multidisciplinary approach. This approach identifies relationships and interactions between actors, and patterns of behavior, by making comparisons (of 2+ countries or of 1 country) to find similarities and differences in experience.

Competitive Authoritarianism

A hybrid regime where elections are held like regular but the playing field is heavily skewed in favor toward the incumbent.

Consolidation

The phase where democracy puts down deep roots and is durable then becomes "the only game in town". They become consolidated by becoming more inclusive, respect human rights, and guaranteeing equal representation to minorities and other marginalized groups. Stability, citizen loyalty, and a widespread belief that the system is good are all signs.

Contestation

The degree of meaningful competition, public debate, and open opposition within a political system.

Corruption

Official misconduct or the abuse of power for private gain .

Debt Service Suspension Initiative (DSSI)

A temporary debt postponement offered to the poorest countries to concentrate on pandemic recovery. A group of 20 donors, aiming to prevent a debt crisis.

Delegative Democracy

A hybrid system where an elected executive governs with minimal institutional checks or horizontal accountability. A political system that has the outward appearance of being democratic and is more democratic than authoritarian. However, such systems are led by elites whose commitment to democracy is said to have limits. In delegative democracies, the executive claims to personify the nation's interests and therefore has exclusive right to interpret them.

Democracy

A system based on popular sovereignty and decentralized power.

Dependency

A relationship of mutual (unequal) vulnerability where less developed countries are sensitive to economic shifts in developed nations. A concept in international relations and political economy describing how developing nations in the "periphery" rely heavily on wealthy, industrialized nations in the "core".

Development

A broad process of increasing human choices and opportunities, promoting material and nonmaterial well-being. Economic and social transformation associated with increased production, industrialization, and improved standards of living, unevenly distributed under colonialism.

Divide and Conquer

A colonial strategy of aggravating local tensions to facilitate external control. Common means of colonial conquest in which an usurping power sets parties against each other, aggravates tensions to the point that the parties bleed each other dry, and then moves into the vacuum.

Economic Liberalization

Neoliberal economic reforms that dismantle government controls and promote opening up economies (market reforms) to foreign trade and investment. Also allowing privatization and deregulation.

Efficacy

The belief that one's participation in public life can influence leaders or effect change. An attitude about one’s competence to effect change; a perception of ability or the sense that one’s participation can make a difference. A sense of efficacy is an important factor in the decision to be engaged in public affairs– people with a strong sense of efficacy are more likely to be active in civic life than those who believe their actions would be worthless. The antonym of efficacy is alienation.

Electoral Authoritarianism

A regime type where elections are held but lack integrity, serving as a facade for autocracy. This holds regular multiparty elections but systematically violates democratic principles of freedom of fairness— creating a facade of democracy while maintaining authoritarian rule.

Electoral Democracy

A system where elections are the primary tool for legitimacy but deeper civil rights may be limited. Foundational form of representative government where citizens choose their leaders through reg., free, and fair elections.

Elites

The small minority in society possessing significantly more power, wealth, or influence than the masses.

Empire

Largest, most complex form of political organization ruling over vast territories and diverse populations. Distinguished from a chiefdom by the size of territories and the populations it controls. They impose a centralized government or single sovereign over a collection of different communities/nations. Often dominate regional and international trade; known for large militaries, they frequently amass great riches through conquest and demands for tribute.

Fallacy of Electoralism

The mistake of focusing on elections as sole "proof" of democracy while ignoring other political realities.

Four Tigers

Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, distinguished by their record of strong growth rates and shared reliance on state capitalism.

Fusion of Powers

A system where the executive and legislative branches are integrated (standard in parliamentary systems). Feature of some parliamentary forms of government, where most, if not all, of the members of the executive must come from the legislature, and therefore the legislative and executive branches of government can be spoken of as being fused.

Globalization

World's increasing interconnectedness with regard to communications, economies and cultures. Also, the spread of capitalism worldwide.

Grievances

Discontent regarding unfair treatment or unmet expectations. Fueling and funneling of negative emotions and various blame-based political strategies.

Growth

An increase in the volume of trade or economic output (GDP/GNI). Often pursued without corresponding improvements in welfare under colonial and postcolonial conditions.

Guerrilla

"Little war", unorganized, non-uniformed combatants using mobile surprise tactics like sabotage and ambush. Small in numbers.

Human Development

A multidimensional measurement of well-being focused on health, education, and income. (1.) Very high development= .800-1 (2.) High HD= 0.7-0.799 (3.) Medium HD= .550-.699 (4.) Low HD= below .550

Hybrid Regime

A system in the "messy middle" that combines democratic and authoritarian elements. Having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones.

Identity

Collective characteristics (race, religion, etc.) by which a person/groups are known .

Ideology

A linked set of ideas describing the world and arousing people to action. Belief system of individuals & groups; a linked set of ideas that describe the world, help people understand their role within society, and arouse them to take action, whether to change or preserve existing situations.

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

A strategy seeking to diversify local economies by subsidizing domestic manufacturing to replace foreign imports. A development strategy, popular in the mid-twentieth century that seeks to diversify economies and lessen the dependence of less developed countries on foreign imports of manufactured goods. It encourages industrialization headquartered with LDCs by subsidizing & protecting local producers from foreign competition.

Insurgency

An organized rebellion against authority, often mixing political activity with violence. Armed political struggle whose goal may be the seizure of power through revolutionary takeover and replacement of the existing government.

Institutions

Established norms and rules that structure political behavior. Studies the formal and informal rules, practices, and regularities at both the domestic and international level that guide and constrain political choices and activities.

Irredentist War

Conflict redrawing boundaries to include territory considered a national homeland. Form of violent interstate conflict from a nation's effects to redraw political boundaries to include territory considered its homeland or to unite it with its people living on the other side of the border.

Legitimacy

The popular perception that a government and its leaders hold power rightfully Large numbers of people that the government, its leaders, and its policies are valid, right, just, and worthy of support. A legitimate regime isn't the same as a legal regime, nor does it mean that a regime is democratic. Political regime is legitimate when it's accepted by the majority of its citizens as right and proper enough to be obeyed in most instances. Legitimacy can be achieved through all sorts of means, including propaganda, clientelism, and coercion.

Liberal Democracy

A consolidated system where democratic norms are internalized and civil liberties are protected. A political system that has undertaken (and continues to undertake) comprehensive political reform in which democratic institutions are routinized and internalized and civil and political rights are protected— so much so that democracy is said to be “consolidated.”

Liberalism

An ideology emphasizing individual freedom, equality, and limits on government interference. Social school of thought in international relations theory that developed in the 1970s. The political concept holds that the state isn't subject to external authority of other states nor is it subject to other internal authorities such as the military.

Masses

The majority of the population who lack power relative to the elites. Common people (workers, not rulers).

Mercantilism

A precapitalist stage of accumulation through colonial plunder and trade surpluses. State-centered approach to economic policy in which governments sought to maximize exports and minimize imports to achieve a positive balance of trade.

Military Regime

A system where military officers hold political power, often as an interim "caretaker" government. Rule by a group of high-ranking officers who can limit the dictator’s discretion.

Mother Country

A colonizing power that establishes exclusive economic and political ties to its colonies. Another name for a colonizing country. Its use denotes the executive ties that bound the colonies to the mother country much like an umbilical cord. Also refers to the parental role the colonizers portrayed themselves as playing in the non-Western world.

Nation-State

A combination of a shared national identity and internationally recognized political boundaries. Sovereign political entity where territorial boundaries of state align with cultural/ethnic boundaries.

Nationalism

Belief that the nation is the primary source of political authority and should govern itself. Set of beliefs that center around the sense of characteristics attributable to a group known as a nation.

Neocolonialism

A condition where formally independent states remain economically and politically dependent on former colonizers. The control of less-developed countries by developed countries through indirect means.

Neoliberalism

An economic strategy favoring free trade, privatization, and minimal government interference. Contemporary version of pro-capitalist liberal economic strategy, which holds that all benefit from an open economy & free trade, or the unencumbered movement of goods and services between states. Dominant view held by the governments of developed countries and most international financial institutions, like World Bank & International Monetary Fund. Neoliberals strongly believe that globalization is a positive force and that the current international economic system based on free competition can work for all if countries will just embrace it.

Nongovernmental Organization (NGO)

A private voluntary association working to accomplish goals independent of government. Non-profit, citizen group to address issues in support of the public.

Non-aligned Movement

Nations that chose to not formally align with major power blocs during the Cold War. Formed in 1961 in opposition to the polarizing tendencies of the Cold War, the NAM is an alliance of 100+ countries that shunned military alliances and coalitions with other states, especially the dominant powers during the Cold War, during which time the NAM advocated the neutrality of its members. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, President Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, and President Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt founded the movement as a vehicle for nonaligned countries to come together to solve mutual problems without the benefit of military alliance. Summit held every 3 years.

Parliamentary System

A democracy where the executive is selected from the legislature rather than through a separate election. A democratic constitutional system where citizens select members of parliament and executive authority is dependent on parliamentary confidence. In this system, new elections are called by the prime minister and can be called at any time (within a certain time frame). As opposed to presidential systems, effective executives can be kept in power indefinitely. The system is self-correcting for executive abuse, since the legislative branch can censure and rid itself of an errant executive with much more ease than the painstaking process of impeachment necessary in a presidential system.

Party System

A system of competing groups vying for political attention and power. Referencing a collection of political parties in a given state/region– analysts often distinguish between single-party systems and multiparty systems, based on the number of active and viable parties in the regime. For example, a 1-party dominant system is one in which there are political alternatives, but in which a single party exercises a near-monopoly on power, either due to the lack of alternatives or because of the overwhelming support of citizens. A multiparty system is one in which there are two or more major contenders for power.

Participation

Voluntary efforts by ordinary people/citizens to influence the actions of leaders/government decisions.

Personalist Regime

An authoritarian style where power is consolidated in one individual who personifies the nation. AKA personally appropriated state– an authoritarian style of government. This regime exists when a single, highly charismatic individual, who represents himself or herself as the personification of the nation, holds unchecked power. It may exist under civilian or military rule, when the leader seeks to guarantee his or her personal control in perpetuity, as “president for life” or through hereditary republic.

Political Culture

Deep, durable patterns of belief shaped by repeated exposure to ideologies through institutions. Context out of which political action is taken, reorganizing the importance of systems of values/beliefs

Political Liberalization

A period of reform based on the extension of civil and political rights (abertura). Process of political reform based on the extension of civil and political rights and the promotion of a more open political system. Signs that a system is liberalizing politically include a variety of changes, such as an increasing tolerance of dissent & the release of political prisoners. Although they are often associated with democratization, not all political liberalizations will result in democracy (AKA abertura).

Political Opportunity

Contextual factors that make collective action more likely to succeed. External, structural conditions within government/society that influence a group's ability to mobilize and achieve goals.

Polyarchy

Robert Dahl's term for a system with high levels of both contestation and participation. Form of government in which power is invested in multiple people. It takes the form of neither a dictatorship nor a democracy.

Populist

An agenda, political party, campaign, or image designed to appeal to the "common people" rather than to the minority elite, rallying them around a shared sense of belonging. Also against a perceived elite enemy.

Praetorianism

A situation where military officers threaten or use force to influence political decisions. Military supremacy in politics.

Presidential System

A type of democracy where citizens separately select executive and legislators, often leading to power concentration in the executive.

Proletariat

The working class in Marxist theory. Socioeconomic group (or class) defined by their relationship to means of production.

Rational legal Legitimacy

Authority based on a system of well-established, impartial laws. Based on a belief in legitimacy of a society’s laws and rules and in the right of leaders to act under these rules.

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is not doing as well as other groups, often sparking violence. Comparative statement that reveals a sense that individuals or groups are not doing as well as other groups.

Resource Mobilization

Approach focusing on the ability to organize leadership and political opportunities for social movements. Conceptual approach to collective behavior and social movements that emphasizes resources necessary for success, taking into account the material and nonmaterial needs of participants in collective action.

Revolution

A regime change aiming for fundamental transformations in political and social structures. Violent transformation of state/society, or political regime.

Rule of Law

A situation where the power of individuals is limited by a supreme set of rules that prevent arbitrary and unfair action by government officials.

Secession

The act of withdrawing or breaking away from an organized state/entity. For example, such as a nation (when Bangladesh seceded from Pakistan).

Secularism

The separation of civil or educational institutions from ecclesiastical (religious) control.

Self determination

The right of a people who share cultural ties and live in a given territory to choose their own government and political institutions.

Social Democracy

A system combining market economics with social well-being policies. Political ideology within socialism. The ideology is named for democracy, where people have a say in government actions, and it works to introduce socialism while also helping people in need.

Social Movement

Groups of people with a common purpose engaged in action to bring about change. Humans with a common purpose engaged in discussion & action designed to bring about change. Social movements are responses to a perceived state of affairs and often identify specific groups in society as a source of the problem to be rectified.

Sovereignty

Freedom from foreign control; the state's right to govern its own territory without interference. A principle widely accepted in global law that speaks to a state's right to do as it wishes in its own territory. Also refers to widespread global acceptance of a particular country's control of territory.

State

A sovereign, organized political entity that holds authority over territory and population.

State sponsored Terrorism

Violent methods used by government forces to intimidate and coerce their own citizens.

Structural Adjustment Program (SAP)

Neoliberal prescriptions required by IFIs for aid, involving austerity and liberalization. Offered by international financial institutions to indebted countries.

Terrorism

Deliberate organized violence targeting civilians to inspire fear and insecurity. Use of violence or threat of violence and intimidation to achieve an aim to spread a message.

The Messy Middle

The range of hybrid regimes that are neither fully democratic nor fully totalitarian. Complex, non-linear space between a high-level policy vision and its day-to-day implementation.

Theocracy

A system of rule based on religion and dominated by clergy. Rules are often inspired by some form of holy book.

Totalitarianism

An extreme, full blown dictatorship system where the state, guided by an overarching ideology, attempts to exercise absolute control over every aspect of citizens' lives.

Traditional Legitimacy

Authority based on long-standing cultural practices or heredity. Derives from societal customs and habits that emphasize the history of the authority of tradition.