Comprehensive Study Guide: Chemistry, John Locke, and Operant Conditioning

Vocabulary flashcards covering atomic structure, chemical bonding, Enlightenment political philosophy through John Locke and Montesquieu, and key concepts of operant conditioning.

Atom

The smallest piece of matter of an element.

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into any other substance.

Electron

A negatively charged subatomic particle located outside the nucleus that has no significant mass.

Proton

A positively charged subatomic particle located inside the nucleus that possesses mass.

Neutron

A neutral charged subatomic particle located inside the nucleus that possesses mass.

Ionic Bond

A bond where one atom transfers one or more electrons to another atom, formed through electrostatic attraction between a metal and a non-metal.

Covalent Bond

A bond formed when two nonmetal atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons (outer-shell electrons) to reach a more stable electron configuration.

Mass Number

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Atomic Number

A value that represents the number of protons in an atom.

Valence Electron

Electrons that are located in the highest energy level of an atom.

Compound

A substance made of two or more elements.

$$C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}$$

A compound containing $3$ distinct elements and a total of $45$ atoms.

Sodium Chloride

An ionic compound with the chemical formula $NaCl$.

Aluminum Oxide

An ionic compound with the chemical formula $Al_2O_3$.

Potassium Nitride

An ionic compound with the chemical formula $K_3N$.

Dinitrogen pentoxide

The covalent compound represented by the chemical formula $N_2O_5$.

Sulfur hexafluoride

The covalent compound represented by the chemical formula $SF_6$.

Full Outer Shell Rule

The principle that the number of valence electrons and the number of bonds needed to complete the valence shell sum to $8$ to give most atoms a full outer shell.

John Locke

An English philosopher ($1632$-$1704$) who asserted people's rights to live in a society governed by just, rational laws and articulated natural rights.

Two Treatises of Government ($1689$)

A work by John Locke written to justify the people of England's resolution to preserve their just and natural rights following the overthrow of King James II.

Glorious Revolution ($1688$)

The revolution in England that overthrew King James II, installed Mary and William of Orange, and affirmed the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy.

Isaac Newton

A scientist who stated the fundamental laws of gravity, deeply influencing Enlightenment writer-philosophers including John Locke.

Rene Descartes

A French philosopher whose central concern was how people acquire knowledge, serving as an influence on John Locke.

Tabula Rasa

The concept of a 'blank slate' outlined in Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, arguing that every person is born blank and shaped by life experiences.

Natural Rights

Life, liberty, and property; the fundamental rights that Locke stated government must protect to provide an environment that creates moral individuals.

Age of Enlightenment

The historical era characterized by independent thought, rational inquiry, and philosophical examination of human nature and society.

Baron de Montesquieu

A French philosopher who authored The Spirit of the Laws ($1748$), describing the separation of government functions into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Division of Powers

Montesquieu's model organizing government into three separate branches (executive, legislative, judicial) needed for good government.

State of Nature

The natural condition in which men are free, equal, and independent before consenting to join a civil society.

Body Politic

A single community formed by the mutual consent of individuals, possessing the power to act as one body under the determination of the majority to preserve property, peace, and safety.

Project Pigeon

An experimental project in which B. F. Skinner used rewards to shape and influence the behavior of birds.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus in operant conditioning that acquires its value and reinforcing power through an associative learning process.

Partial Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards intermittently, making the conditioned behavior significantly more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement

A schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, which proves less resistant to extinction compared to partial reinforcement.

Variable-Interval Schedule

An unpredictable time-based reinforcement schedule that produces a steady rate of response distinct from a fixed-interval schedule.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule based on predictable, predetermined time intervals.