Psychology // Neuroscience Notes (College Level)

Phrenology (Franz Gall)

theory that the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Father of psychoanalysis.

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Synapse

A convergence point of two neurons where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.

Myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Neural network

refers to interconnected neuron cells

Central Pattern Generator

Rhythmic, oscillatory neural networks in the spinal cord or brainstem capable of generating autonomous programmed movement

Astrocyte

type of glial (neuroglial) cell that transports water and salts from capillaries

Reinforcing Feedback Loop

An amplifying or enhancing feedback loop, also known as a "positive feedback loop" because it reinforces the direction of change. (Positive)

Balancing Feedback Loop

a stabilizing, goal-seeking, regulating feedback loop, also known as a "negative feedback loop" because it opposes, or reverses, (Negative)

Cognitive Revolution

The shift away from strict behaviorism, begun in the 1950s, characterized by renewed interest in fundamental problems of consciousness and internal mental processes.

Who Declared: "Psychology, as the study of behavior." ?

John Watson

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Psychoanalytics (Freud)

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Behaviorism (Watson)

Behavior could be reliably measured. The effect of experience upon it should be the focus of psychology.

Functionalism (William James)

early school of thought promoted by W. James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Humanistic Psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego

the mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

founder of classical conditioning while trying to study digestive system

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals (External)

Mental Processes

internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior (Internal)

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Node of Ranvier

A gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed.

Soma

cell body of a neuron

Axon Terminal

The endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored

Mylenation

Coating of neural fibres with insulating fatty sheath improves efficiency of message transfer.

Sodium-potassium pump

a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell. (Action Potential)

Ion Channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient. (Action Potential)

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord, controls automatic movement

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

Division of the autonomic nervous system that slows down body functions, activated when you relax or when SNS stimulated too long.

Automatic Nervous System (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Frontal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

Parietal Lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Temporal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

Occipital Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

The Cerebrum

Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body

Split brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

Lobotomy

immoral brain surgery for treatment of certain mental disorders, known for intentionally damaging the frontal lobe

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

M.E.G (magnetoencephalography)

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

PET (positron emission tomography)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

Forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward.

Brain Stem

The part of the brain that connects the spinal cord with the forebrain and cerebrum, responsible for basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.