Final

What groups make up prokaryotes?

Bacteria and archaea

Prokaryotes don’t have?

A nucleus or organelles

What are archaea cell walls comprised of?

Polysaccharides and proteins

Extremophiles

Organisms that thrive in extreme environments, such as high temperatures, acidity, salinity, or pressure, where most life forms cannot survive.

Archaea get their food from oxidizing inorganic substances to synthesize organic compounds from CO2. They are called

Chemoautotrophs

Halophiles

thrive in high-salt environments, such as salt flats or salt mines. They have adapted to survive in extreme saline conditions.

Acidophiles

thrive in acidic environments with pH levels below 3.

Thermophiles

thrive in high-temperature environments, typically above 45°C (113°F). They are able to survive and reproduce in extreme heat conditions due to their ether-bonded lipids, which are more resistant to heat.

What kind of chromosomes do prokaryotes have?

Circular

Biofilms

communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and secrete a protective matrix, allowing them to thrive in various environments.

Quorum Sensing

process used by bacteria to communicate and coordinate behavior based on population density through the production and detection of signaling molecules.

Conjugation

transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells through direct cell-to-cell contact using a sex pilus; can pass DNA

Transformation

Bacteria pick up DNA from other prokaryotes and incorporate it into their genome.

Transduction

bacteriophages carry portions of bacterial DNA from one cell to another, acting as vectors

Bacteriophage

a virus that infects a bacterium and reproduces inside of it.

Gram+

thick wall on bacteria

Gram-

thin wall on bacteria

Pili

Hair-like appendage found on bacteria, which they use to communicate and share genetic information.

Horizontal gene transfer

movement of genetic material between bacteria other than the passing down of DNA from parent to offspring; allows for more survival and antibiotic resistance.

Plasmid

Small circular DNA strand not enclosed in a nucleus in bacteria.

Bacteria have what kind of ribosomes?

Free range

Nucleoid

where the bacterial chromosome is located

Bacterial cell walls are made of

peptidoglycan

Mesosome

folded parts of the plasma membrane in bacteria with the purpose of increasing surface area to volume ratio of a cell

Fimbriae

Small, thread-like projections on bacteria that allow for adhesion

Flagellum

Hairlike appendage on bacteria that allow for motility.

Endospore

bacteria that engulfs another so it may remain dormant for the purpose of resistance, making them difficult to eliminate.

Obligate aerobes

need O2 to survive

Facultative aerobes

can survive with or without O2

Obligate anaerobes

cannot survive in the presence of O2

Aerotolerant

is not killed by O2, but does not use it

Photoautotrophs

photosynthetic organisms that use energy from light in metabolic processes. Some do and some don’t produce O2, some reduce CO2 to organic compounds

Cyanobacteria

photosynthetic bacteria

Detrivores

are aerobic saprotrophs; free living

saprotrophs

digests decaying matter

Symbiotic relationship

a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms

Mutualism

both organisms benefit from a symbiotic relationship with one another, and neither are harmed

Commensalism

one organism benefits from a symbiotic relationship, and the other derives neither benefit or harm

Parasitism

one organism benefits from a symbiotic relationship, while the other is harmed

Diazotrophs

fix atmospheric nitrogen in biologically available forms such as ammonia.

Five shapes of bacteria

1. Round (cocci)

2. Rod (bacilli)

3. Comma (vibrios)

4. Rigid Spiral (spirilla)

5. Flexible Spiral (spirochaetes)

Salmonella outbreak

• bacilli bacteria from human and animal feces

• symptoms: 4-7 days of diarrhea, fever, cramps

• affects mostly children

• 1.35 million cases/ year

• 420 deaths/ year

• causes typhoid

E. coli outbreak

• mostly harmless strains

• food-borne illness caused by shiga toxin

• symptoms: diarrhea, fever, cramps

• found in intestines of humans and animals

Competitive exclusion principle

two species competing for the same food source cannot coexist in the same place; cannot occupy the same niche

Niche

an ecological role

Protists

eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi

Plasmodium

parasitic protists that can cause malaria

Plasmodium Vivax

most frequent and widely distributed cause of malaria; can lead to severe disease and death; most common in Asia

Anopheles

scientific name of the female mosquitoes that are responsible for transmitting malaria to humans

Plasmodium Falciparum

deadliest malaria-causing species of plasmodium; responsible for 50% of cases; most common in Africa

Plasmodium Malariae

causes a “benign malaria” with milder symptoms; found worldwide

Plasmodium Ovale

causes a more rare, tertian malaria with milder symptoms

Red Algae

archaeplastida that are:

• multicellular

• flat and branched

  • can be fillamentous

• can be red/dark green

• marine + near shores

Green Algae

archaeplastida that are:

• most unicellular

  • some multicellular

• most filamentous

• various habitats

• highly symbiotic with plants, fungi, and animals

Charophytes

plants are thought to be derived from this type of green algae

Amoeba

free-living, single-celled, protist that lives in damp environments or parasitic;

use pseudopods to move and catch food, and they form when the cytoplasm streams forward in a certain direction

Plasmodial slime mould

is a single, multinucleated cell;

-able to move and sense where food is

-found best routes for Japanese transit

Cellular slime mould

comprised of single cells that can aggregate to form a multicellular organism

-use chemical signaling when food is limited to attract more mould cells to join the cluster

-have altruistic tendencies to keep other cells in the cluster alive

Biological Altruism

selfless behavior of an individual that increases the fitness of another individual or population of individuals while it decreases its own fitness; sacrifices

Most common mode of fungi nutrition

saprotrophic decomposition

- taking up through osmosis and decomposing organic matter

-cells release digestive enzyme, then absorb nutrient molecules

Types of pathogenic fungi

athlete’s foot, thrush, ringworm, yeast infection, etc.

Mycosis

a disease caused by infection with a fungus

Fungi asexual and sexual reproduction result in

non-motile spores

Plasmogamy

stage in fungi sexual reproduction where the cytoplasms of two parent cells fuse without the fusion of the haploid (n) nuclei, entering the heterokaryotic stage

Karyogamy

stage in fungi sexual reproduction where the two haploid (n) nuclei fuse to form a diploid (2n) zygote, which will then undergo meiosis to form haploid spores that get germinated and form mycelium

Mycelium

part of fungi comprised of the filamentous network of hyphae

Hyphae

branching filaments that make up the mycelium of fungi; the tips secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown environmental material for food

Penicillin

comes from a blue-green mould, Penicilium chrysogenum

Conidia

a spore produced asexually by various fungi at the tip of a specialized hypha

Conidiophore

a conidium-bearing hypha or filament.

Fermentation

the chemical breakdown of a substance by a yeast; sugars are converted to ethyl alcohol. process used in making beer, wine, and liquor.

Cordyceps

produce spores that infect the brain and body of bullet ants

Club fungi

• usually reproduce sexually

• haploid hyphae fuse, forming a dikaryotic (n + n) mycelium

• dikaryotic mycelium forms fruiting bodies called basidiocarps

• contain club-shaped structures called basidia

Lichen

symbiotic association between a fungus and a cyanobacterium or green algae.

• can live in extreme areas and contribute to soil formation

• lack roots, absorb from the air around them, indicators of pollution

The 3 kinds of lichens

1. compact crustose lichens - seen on bare rocks or on tree bark (orange rust color)

2. fruticose lichens - shrub-like

3. foliose lichens - leaf-like

Relationship between roots and fungi

fungi and plant roots form a network underground; roots provide nutrients to fungi, and fungi provide sugar to roots

-fungi can be used to send chemical signals to other trees (friendly or deadly)

Mycorrhizae

a fungus which grows in association with the roots of a plant; can be symbiotic or mildly pathogenic

-give plants greater absorptive surface

-hyphae enter cortex of the root

Ectomycorrhizae

form a mantle that is exterior to the root, and they grow between cell walls, coating the root surface.

ex: oak, beech, pine, spruce; truffles

Endomycorrhizae

penetrate only the cell walls; grow along plasma membrane

ex: apple trees, coffee, legumes, grasses, tomatoes, strawberries

Mushroom

tightly packed hyphae whose walled-off ends become basidia

Zygomycota

bread moulds; mainly saprotrophs decomposing animal and plant remains/ bakery goods in pantries

aseptate fungi

multi-nucleated fungi

septet fungi

fungi with hyphae with cross walls, and the nuclei are separated but the flow of information is not limited (compartments not closed)

How do fungi reproduce?

using spores that are spread by wind, rain, or another vector like insects

Yeasts

unicellular fungi, many of which are ascomycetes

What does yeast fermentation produce?

ethanol and carbon dioxide

Saccharomyces

yeast used in the making of bread and brewing

Candida

pathogenic yeast that causes infections in immunocompromised people

Ascus

fingerlike sac that develops during the sexual reproduction of ascomycete fungi ; houses spores; protected by fruiting body (ascocarp)

In ascomycetes, haploid hyphae fuse and make a

diploid nucleus

How many ascopores are produced from mitosis and meiosis?

8

Sac Fungi

mostly terrestrial, decomposers, pathogens, lichens, form conidia; have cell walls of chitin; excess food stored as glycogen

Budding

how many fungi species multiply; forming daughter cells from original parent cells

Order by what came first in plants:

vascular tissue, seeds, embryonic protection, and flowers

1. embryonic protection

2. vascular tissue

3. seeds

4. flowers

Plants have cell walls made of

cellulose

Plasmodesmata

cytoplasm that passes through the cell wall in plants, allowing cells to communicate

Spermatophytes

plants that produce seeds; most abundant

Gymnosperms

have naked seeds

• no fruit

Angiosperms

have covered seeds; flowering plants

• embryo sac contains ovules that become seeds when fertilized

• ovules enclosed by diploid tissue

• dominant group of plants

Seed benefits

have protective seed coat and stored food (starch) that allow an embryo to survive harsh conditions during long periods of dormancy

several modes of dispersal (wind, insect, animal, water, etc.)