SCAND 344 - Midterm

When and why did the Viking Age begin?

Between 793-1066 and as a result of overpopulation, politics and the advancement of seafaring technology

Key characteristics of early Iceland?

Settled by Norwegian settlers, had no prehistoric period due to country climate, there was no executive power, it was instead balanced between 40 thingmenn

Why did Iceland eventually convert to Christianity?

Decision of Thorgeir where people took oaths to align with his decision before he made it (peaceful conversion)

Did Iceland have writing systems before Christianity?

No, they relied on oral communication until Christianity brought the Latin alphabet and writing tools

What is a myth?

Story that involves supernatural beings that provides an explanation for early history, religious belief or natural phenomenon

What is religion?

The ritual practice regarding the belief in gods itself as opposed to narration (like myths)

Narrative frame of the Prose Edda?

King Gylfi travels to Asgard under disguise where he meets 3 chieftains who are actually all Odin in disguise that answers his questions about the beginning of time

How is the world formed according to Icelandic myth?

Ymir is the primeval being which forms the foundations for the world upon its death, where as Earth itself forms around Yggdrasil that has 3 main roots (the gods, the frost giants, Niflheim)

Hlidskjalf?

Odin’s throne where he watches over the world but doesn’t interfere with fate

Aesir?

A main group of gods characterized by power and war, after the viking age, Iceland became a warrior cult focused on fighting so Aesir gods became increasingly important

Vanir?

Main group of gods associated with fertility and wisdom, which was more important to the Icelandic people before the viking age (based upon their need for fertility of crops in real life)

Odin?

The all-father known by many names as the ruler of Valhalla, he is considered the god of wisdom but is reliable and fickle

Thor?

The most popular god because he’s the god of the common people, protects humans/gods from the giants, has 3 main possessions (hammer, belt and iron gloves), continued to be worshipped after conversion to Christianity, can only be outdone by magic and cunning

Loki?

Not a god because his father is a giant, is a gender non-conforming giant who is responsible for the beginning of Ragnarok, has 3 children one of which is an 8-legged horse, both causes and resolves problems

Baldr?

Son of Odin, his death was the main cause of Ragnarok

Njord?

Vanir who rules wind and seas

Frey?

Njord’s son who is also a Vanir, associated with rain and sun in relation to farming

Freyja?

Daughter of Njord and a Vanir, associated with love and reproductive fertility

Tyr?

Aesir god who is just and wise, got his hand bitten off

Bragi?

Known for wisdom and poetry

Heimdall?

Watchman of the gods, lives near the Bifrost, has amazing sight and hearing

Euhemerism?

Explanation of the gods as humans who people made into gods

Myth of building Asgard?

Giant uses a stallion to help him build, which Loki lured away by shapeshifting into a mare, was then impregnated by it and gave birth to the 8-legged horse

Utgarda-Loki myth?

Thor is unable to defeat a massive giant, who gives him impossible contests against forces of nature (old age, fire, thought, the ocean, Midgard Serpent)

Thor and the Midgard Serpent myth?

Thor goes out fishing with a giant, almost catches the Midgard Serpent until the giant cuts the line (portrayal of giants as less intellectual)

Death of Baldr?

Shot by a mistletoe arrow by his blind brother, his funeral, the attempted revival which is prevented by Loki, vengeance for Baldr which causes Loki to cause earthquakes (starting Ragnarok)

How are dreams and fate connected in Old Norse?

Dreams indicate upcoming events (fate) and are an external force on one’s mind, fate cannot be changed and there is punishment if one attempts to do so

How was Iceland a bloodfeud society?

There was no moral stigma for homicide at the time of the sagas, people operated on an eye for an eye mentality. This is why Baldr being killed by his brother meant he could not be avenged and going against this caused the end of the world

Kvasir’s blood?

Poetry, mead from his blood can make someone a poet (Odin eagle myth)

Heiti?

Noun found only in poetry like “battle,” “gods,” “women”

Kennings?

Type of circumlocution with a determinant (characteristic/descriptive) and a baseword (noun), meanings are derived from Nordic mythology

Earliest surviving Skaldic poem?

Ragnarsdrapa

Skald?

An occasional or accidental poet, some had a function to serve the king’s inner circle

Panegyric poetry?

Praises a specific ruler (uses military ideology)

Aspects of Skaldic poetry?

Alliteration, half-rhyming and complex sentence structures

Odinnic warrior?

Someone who has great strength and shares traits with Odin (most succesful Skald was one - Egill Skalla-Grimsson)

Egill Skalla-Grimsson poems?

Head ransom poem, lament for sons

Eddic poetry?

Written about heroes, is anonymous

Pioneers of the learning age?

Bishops who became educated abroad and brought the knowledge back (called learned)

Islendingabok?

Written by Ari the Wise regarding the time from settlement to his lifetime, including the establishment of the Althing (general assembly)

Landnamabok?

The book of settlements that outlines the lineage of Icelanders, shows importance of lineage in Icelandic culture, some major themes include fate, religion, law, gender, the supernatural

Why did people emigrate to Iceland?

Adventure/honour, limited opportunities in Norway, dissatisfaction with political conditions, Vikings didn’t want to go home

People who attempted to land in Iceland?

Nadodd named it Snowland, Gardar Svafarsson had an isle and went all the way around, Raven-Floki gave Iceland its name

How did supernatural belief play a role in Icelandic settlement?

People believed there was a larger force at play telling them to emigrate and relied on omens to show them where to set up camp

Sacred exposition?

Refers to translations of foreign material, such as scientific translations, natural human history

First Grammatical Treatise?

Based on Latin with modifications regarding a precise sound system (orthography), other similar works came after

Differences between Nordic and Christian perceptions of time?

In ancient times, there was only a winter or summer, Christianity brought the idea that there are 12 months in a year and encouraged learning about astronomy

Regions of Iceland?

Western, Southern, Eastern, Northern with the Althing in the middle

Examples of major themes in the Land of Settlements?

Catching of a merman who tells people about their future, where a Christian man had lots of fish in the river until he was chased out to which the fish left (bias of religion), sorcerers who controlled the flood

Icelandic naming system?

Use of patronymics (no surname but identified by relationship to father), thats why a lot of names end with “son” or “dottir,” if they had the same name as others they would be identified by their byname (characteristics, habits, etc)

Gragar?

First legal code in Iceland

First written biographies and sagas in Iceland?

Sagas of Saints began in 1150 with the sagas of holy kings like the Olavs, then went to Icelandic bishops and then sagas of the Virgin Mary and the apostles

Hagiography?

Lives of a saint, was the dominant literary genre in Europe with a range of different themes

Saints?

Superhuman mortals that are intermediaries between the earthly and the divine who performed miracles during and after their life

Types of saints?

Martyr saints, Kings/Queens, clerics/nuns and visionaries

How was the calendar organized around saints?

They organized everyday as a feast dedicated to a certain saint’s death because the church dominated daily life, everyone had daily obligations that they would be fined for not following

Canonization?

The official act by which a church declares someone a saint

Relic?

Holy remains of a saint

Cult?

Term for a devotion to a particular saint

Patron saint?

Saint associated with a specific church or location

Attribute?

Symbol associated with a saint

Vita?

Refers to the life/legend/biography of a saint

St. Stephen?

Is the protomartyr (first) of Christ, with a day of relaxed observance. He is the patron of stonemasons and headaches (because of the association with his death) with a large cult

St. Barbara?

Saint with a day of relaxed observance, patron of people in danger of sudden death and the sacrament of penance. She has a smaller cult and is a saint because of her refusal to abandon her faith and people’s wishes for her to marry someone

Purpose of martyr saints?

Shows how faith/devotion works, serves a cultural/religious function and to help one to endure hardship

How are saint sagas a model for future sagas?

Provided narrative models, people’s first exposure to long-form prose and specific character archetypes

Heimskringla?

Translates to disc of the world and is tales of Norwegian kings by Snorri Sturluson through a historical method (skaldic poems and learned men)

Sagas of the Ynglings?

Odin wants to travel with other gods and Berzerks because there is a new area of settlement (Sweden), Frey’s rule of the land is associated with kindness which translated to the people there

Key themes in king sagas?

Warfare, kingship conflict, sacrifice, supernatural intervention, precarious nature of kingship (vulnerability to other kings)

What information does the saga of Yngling give us about the gods?

Detailed description of the Aesir/Vanir battle, more euhemerism (powerful people being attributed to gods by tricking others)

How are the gods used to explain religious practices?

Gods being buried in certain ways influenced how normal people did it over time and also influenced their view of sacrifice (good for the community)

What was early kingship like?

King was bound to the prosperity of his land and people, sacrificed if not doing well, repeated disruption by internal/external forces, genealogy to a god helpful

Importance of religion in the establishment of kings?

Religion legitimizes kingship, ones connection to the gods allows them to rule and holds them accountable

Background of the Olaf Tryggvason saga?

Harald Greycloak wanted to eliminate all the petty kings (including Olaf’s dad) so that he could rule Norway, Olaf is born in secret and has to run away after they find out until he is caught by pirates and sold to slavery and then escapes where he converted to Christianity and tries to convert everyone else in Norway, loses battle in Svolder and leaps into the sea

How does Snorri Sturluson handle the conflict between Paganism and Christianity?

By making reference to how messy conversion was and the renouncing of faith as a direct foil to Olaf’s acceptance of Christianity

How is Olaf presented in his saga?

Standard hero narrative (good-looking, well-liked, went through hardship, royal blood, chosen one, brash) until his connection to Christianity through prophecy

King Eirik and Queen Gunnhildr?

Those who tried to kill Egill, leading to him making the head-ransom poem and is the parent of Harald Greycloak

Ingolf and Hjorleifr?

Ingolf is the first permanent settler in Iceland and Hjorleifr is his brother who was killed

Epic pattern?

Withdrawal, devastation, return (birth of hero motif across all)

Position of kings before and after conversion?

Precarious position of kings before conversion and after, no longer because they’re protected by divine right/will of god

Olaf Haraldsson?

Fully realized the Christianization of Norway, made a saint a year after his death unlike Tryggvason who was never regarded as a saint

Problem-Poet?

Olaf’s court poet who substantiated Snorri’s claims about what happened during Olaf’s time

Whetting women?

Women who incite their men to violence in order to restore honour to the household

Neeth?

Severe insult towards a man that implies cowardice and unmanliness, needed to get revenge for family honour