anatomy lecture

what is anatomy?

the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships with one another

what are the subdivisions of anatomy

• gross anatomy

  • regional

  • systemic

  • surface

• microscopic anatomy

  • cytology

  • histology

• developmental

  • embryology

• pathological anatomy

• radiographic anatomy

what is gross anatomy

study of LARGE body structures you can see with naked eye

• heart, lungs, bones

what is regional anatomy

study of specific regions of the body

• abdominal, neck, anatomy of the knee

what is systemic anatomy

study of specific body systems

• skeletal system

what is surface anatomy

study of internal structures as they relate to the skins surface

• What’s underneath the skin, and where is it located on the surface?”

• feeling your pulse on your wrist

what is microscopic anatomy

study of things we cannot see with the naked eye

• cells under a microscope

what is cytology

the study of cells

what is histology

the study of tissues

what is developmental anatomy

study of how the body changes as it grows

• conception to death

  • womb to tomb

what is embryology

study of development changes before birth

• studying how the heart develops in an embryo

what is pathological anatomy

study structural changes caused by disease

• think “pathogen”- disease

what is radiographic anatomy

study of anatomy using specialized screening technologies to see inside the body

• x-ray to see a broken bone, and medical imaging

what is the energy source for an x-ray

light energy and short wavelength (gamma radiation)

what does an x-ray take pictures of

dense/hard structures

• bones

• 2D image!

• light get absorbed by bones, but NOT soft tissue

example of an x-ray

x-ray for broken bone

what is the energy source for computerized tomography scan (CT scan)

light energy

• allows you to see layers of the body

what does a CT scan take pictures of

CT scans take pictures of dense (hard) structures

• create a cross-sectional plane of multiple x-rays

what do white, black, and grey mean on a CT scan

white: bone

Black: empty space

Grey: water- filled tissue

examples of a CT scan

tumors or bone fracture

what is the light source for a xenon CT scan

light energy

what is another name for a xenon ct scan

enhanced ct

how does a xenon CT scan work

the patient inhales radioactive xenon gas

• measures where the xenon goes in your lungs or brain.

• more active cells the more gas take up → bright spots

• COLOR

• more intense/hotter colors generally mean more xenon reached that area.

what do xenon CT scans take pictures of

active tissues

• does not depict the tissue itself, but the blood flow in it

• shows which tissue in the body are getting the majority of the blood flow

what is the most/least active color in xenon CT scans

most active- red

least active- blue

example of a xenon ct scan

stroke truama

what energy source does a DSR use

light energy

what does a DSR take pictures of

dense (hard) structures

• creates a 3D image that can be rotated

examples of what a DSR takes pictures of

bones and soft tissue, blood flow through the heart

what energy source does a DSA use

light energy

explain a DSA scan

Digital subtraction angiography

• 2 step process/ requires a before and after image

  • X-ray images are taken.

  • A contrast dye is inhaled into the body before the second image is taken

  • A computer subtracts/removes the two images

  • The blood vessels stand out clearly

what does a DSA take pictures of

blood vessels

example of what a DSA takes pictures of

tiny blood vessels

what energy source does a PET scan use

light energy

explain a PET scan

Positron Emission Tomography

• inject radioactive isotope in body

• accumulates to areas that have higher metabolic activity (how much energy a cell or tissue is using to do its job) making it a hot spot

what do PET scans take pictures of

active tissues

• focuses on cancerous areas

  • can determine the severity of cancer

what energy source do ultra sounds use

sound energy

what does an ultrasound take pictures of

soft tissue

• sound bounces off hard tissue (bone)

• sound is absorbed by soft tissue

what kind of imaging are ultrasounds most commonly used for

gestational images

• images of a developing baby (fetus) during pregnancy.

what energy source is used for MRI

magnetic energy

• electromagnetic field induced by a magnet

what do MRI’s take pictures of

soft tissue

• uses hydrogen ions, which allows us to view soft tissue in very high clarity

what are MRI’s most commonly used for

athletic injuries

• ligament damage

• ACL tear

what energy source is used for MRS

magnetic energy

explain an MRS scan

magnetic resonance spectroscopy

• similar to MRI

• uses ions other than hydrogen to view different tissues

• measure chemicals/metabolites in tissues.

• shows Chemical Composition

for an MRS, calcium and sodium ions are used to look at what

calcium ions: bones and muscle

sodium ions: kidneys

what energy source does an M2A use

light energy

explain a M2A scan

swallow/injest a small digital camera capsule. It travels through your digestive system and takes pictures.

• camera gets destroyed by acid in stomach or small intestine (very acidic)

examples of a M2A scan

esophageal cancer, lining of stomach, upper gastric problems

what is physiology?

• study of the function of body parts including both chemical and physical parts

structure can dictate function, and function can regulate structure. What does this mean

the structure affects what something can do, and the function can affect or change its structure.

• ex: red blood cells structure is so they can be loaded with oxygen to carry that oxygen

  • Their structure allows them to carry oxygen efficiently.

list the levels of organizations

chemical, cellular (cell), tissue, organ, organ system, organism

explain chemical

• lowest level

• atoms and molecules

explain cellular

• 2 or more chemicals combined to make cells

• basic function and structural unit of life

explain tissue

2 or more cells working together

explain an organ

2 or more tissues working together to perform a specific task

explain an organ system

2 or more organs working together to preform a specific task

explain organismal level

• all of our body systems working together to keep us alive, so we can reproduce

  • entire living organism

what is the limiting boundary

separates the inside from the outside world

• structures that separate the inside of the body from the outside environment and help maintain the body's internal conditions.

• ex: skin

what is excitability

the ability to detect changes both inside and outside the body

• response to a stimulus

• ex: eyes dilating in response to changing light

what is conductivity

the ability to carry the effects of a stimulus from one part of the body to another

• ex: info is communicated across the body by the nervous system

what is metabolism

the sum total of all the chemical reactions within the body (that keep us alive)

what are the two types of metabolism

catabolism and anabolism

what is catabolism

break down reactions

• ex: breaking down food

what is anabolism

build up reaction

• ex: amino acids → proteins

what is digestion and what does it involve

the breakdown of food

involves catabolic metabolic activity and absorption

what is excretion

elimination of wastes

• including poop, urine, CO2 (exhaling)

what is movement

The result of muscle activity (voluntary or involuntary). The technical term is locomotion.

• ex: heart beating

what is growth

an increase in size either by

• increasing the number of cells

• increase in the size of preexisting cells

what is reproduction

replacement of one cell by another through mitosis or production of new individuals (procreation)

what are the life boundaries

• limiting boundaries

• excitability

• conductivity

• metabolism

  • catabolism

  • anabolism

• digestion

• excretion

• movement

• growth

• reproduction

what is conductivity

ability of a cell to transmit or spread an electrical signal from one part of the cell to another.

what are our survival needs?

• nutrients

• oxygen

• water

• normal body temp

• atmospheric temperature

what are nutrients

chemical substances that our body will use for energy or the production of new cells that is obtained through a balanced diet

what is oxygen

the final electron acceptor that helps us release the energy needed to keep us alive

what is the most abundant and important substance in our body

water

water is lost through

evaporation and excretion (poop and pee)

• makes up 60-80% of our body weight

our body functions best at

normal body temo→ 98.6 F and 37 C

if our body temp is too high

proteins will denature

• catabolic reaction

what is atmospheric pressure

on earth, air exerts a force on our body

• makes it possible for us to breathe

if we maintain proper survival needs we also maintain _____

homeostasis

what is the dentition of homeostasis

the condition of a stable internal body environment

is homeostasis constant?

never, rather a “dynamic equilibrium”

what is stress

any stimulus causing an imbalance in the internal environment and disrupts homeostasis

are all stimuli stressors?

no, but all stressors are stimuli

do all stimuli disrupt homeostasis

NO, some do NOT disrupt homeostasis, only the ones that do are stressors

what are the 2 stress regulators

• nervous system

• endocrine system

  • work together

how does the nervous system regulate stress

• use electrical messages

• responds quickly and is short lived

how does the endocrine system regulate stress

• uses chemical energy

• responds slowly and is long lived

what is a feedback system

A circular process that occurs in the body after homeostasis is disrupted and a stressor brings an imbalance that serves to reach homeostasis again

what is a stressor

stimulus which causes an imbalnace in homeostasis

what is a receptor

detects a change (stimulus) that disrupts homeostasis (has been lost), sends information to the body

what is the control center (brain)

The part of the body that receives information from receptors and determines the appropriate response.

• causes an action

what is the effector

carries out the action which counteracts the stress to return to homeostasis

what are negative feedback systems

a change to homeostasis triggers a response by the body to reverse the effect the stimulus had

• ex: internal thermostat: too hot outside→ start sweating to cool us down

• Blood glucose: as BG levels spike, your body triggers a response which releases a hormone to lower the content of glucose in your blood

what are positive feedback systems

a process where the effector intensifies or strengthens the original condition

• ex: childbirth: the stretch of the walls of the uterus causes contraction, which causes more stretch

• alcohol consumption: you like the drink, so you have another, which lead to vomiting

what is matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

matter is composed of

chemical elements

• not influenced by gravity

weight equals

mass x gravity

• influecned by gravity

what are elements

substances that cannot be decomposed into smaller substances

there are 118 chemical elements, how many are in the human body

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