Biodiversity, importance and value

Environmental Kuznets Curve

As a country gets richer, environmental damage first increases, then eventually decreases.

Critiques of EKC

• Not all true variables

• Is income-environmental quality link casual?

• Scale of measurement -National level- exporting of degradation

• High ‘inflexion point’: suggests an “we’ll eventually get there” mindset without actually making useful changes.

1. What? → Not all environmental variables
2. Why? → Doesn't prove causation
3. Where? → Pollution can be exported
4. When? → Turning point may come too late

Biodiversity EKC (inverse)

Even if you increase species richness, biodiversity wellbeing might not necessarily be restored.

Biodiversity

The variety of life on Earth at all scales, ranging from genes to population within species to species to ecosystems.

How do scientists measure diversity?

Richness

Evenness

Heterogeneity

How do scientists measure diversity?

Richness

measure of the number of unique life forms (e.g. species)

How do scientists measure diversity?

Evenness

Measure of the equitability (e.g. relative abundance) among life forms.

How do scientists measure diversity?

Heterogeneity

Measure of dissimilarity among life forms.

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) -2019

Biodiversity is declining through reductions in native species abundance, increases in invasive alien species, and climate-driven changes in specific distributions.

Ecosystem functions

• Biomass production (primary productivity)

• nutrient cycling/recycling

• decomposition

• moderation of hydrologic cycle (quality and quantity)
  Resilience

• resistance to disease

• pollnation

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

resource capture, biomass production, decomposition, nutrient recycling

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

variation in genes, species, functional traits

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

In which area of this graph expect small loss of biodiversity = largest effect on ecosystem function?

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

The variability of ecosystem function can decrease as diversity increases/decreases.

The variability of ecosystem function can decrease as diversity increases.

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

General mechanisms of this relationship

Complementary

Sampling Effect

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

General mechanisms of this relationship

Complementary:

Ecological differences between species lead each to contribute in a unique way to the ecosystem function of interest.

→ Deterministic processes lead to increasing ecosystem function with each species added.

species have different strengths, so they work together.

Interpreting general relationship between diversity and ecosystem function

function of

y=ecosystem function

x= biological diversity

General mechanisms of this relationship

Sampling effect

More species in a community increases the odds that at least one of them will make a major contribution to the ecosystem function of interest.

→ Some species that have large effects on ecosystem function are included by chance in the community.

the more species you have, the greater the chance you “sample” a really effective species, having a “superstar” species.

Diversity and Resilience

keystone species

• Some species are critical

• Necessary for ecosystem functioning, but may not be sufficient for sustainability over-long run

• Non-keystone species (passeger species)

Resilience

The capacity of a system to experience changes while retaining essentially the same function, structure, feedbacks, and therefore identity.

Resilience (two types)

Equilibrium Resilience

Ecosystem Resilience

Equilibrium Resilience

Manageable, steady state, sustained yield possible

Increase efficiency, reduce disturbance

Ecosystem Resilience

Constant state of change

non-linear

Resilience—Natural Variation is key: Golden Rule

Natural resource management should strive to retain critical types and ranges of natural variation in ecosystems.

Resilience—Command and Control

Command-and-control management can hinder ecosystem resilience when it reduces natural variation, species diversity, and functional diversity by forcing ecosystems into uniform or predictable states. However, targeted management can also support resilience when it protects or restores diversity.

Ecosystem Services

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems.

Provisioning

Regulating

Cultural

Supporting

Ecosystem Services

Provisioning

Products obtained from ecosystems (food, wood, medicines)

Ecosystem Services

Regulating

Benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes (carbon sequestration and climate regulation, purification of water and air)

Ecosystem Services

Cultural

Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems. Spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience.

Ecosystem Services

Supporting

Maintain conditions for life on Earth (and necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services)

Value of world’s ecosystem services and natural capital

makes us think that we can replace these services with money

doesn’t account for loss of these services

Depends on how valuable they are to people

seemingly “free” yet theu are worth many trillions of dollars

Value of world’s ecosystem services and natural capital

Is their economic value recognized in our current economic framework?

Economic value is not recognized in our current economic framework, the economic costs for society associated with the degradation and destruction of these ecosystems is not recognized and also does not enter into our calculations.

Sustainability, ecosystem services and biodiversity

In a whole range of ecosystem services, biodiversity is an immense contributor.

Why is biodiversity (and the loss of it) important?

Biodiversity supports human well-being by using ecosystem services that provide essential ecological and economic benefits.

Greater biodiversity also increases ecosystem resilience by providing functionality and allowing ecosystems to better respond to environmental change.

Biodiversity loss can disproportionately affect marginalized communities because they often depend more directly on local ecosystems and are more vulnerable to environmental change.

However, biodiversity is often undervalued because many of its regulating services are difficult to recognize or quantify, meaning biodiversity conservation is not always fully integrated into policy.

Biodiversity = SERVICES + RESILIENCE + PEOPLE

• Services → supports humans

• Resilience → helps ecosystems adapt

• People → marginalized communities can be hit hardest

• Undervalued → benefits aren't fully recognized → weak policy protection

wilderness, values, culture, protection

• underlying reasons how we view nature

• idea about what we consider wild

• what we see as appropriate to change/ protect

• depends on culture and values

• consumption and governance

Alternative perspectives on biodiversity

Ecosystem people

• Directly dependent on local ecosystems

• Place based

• Know local ecological processes

• Embedded in nature

If people don't know or experience nature deeply, they may not value it enough to protect it.

Alternative perspectives on biodiversity

Biosphere people

• Indirectly dependent on ecosystems

• Globally connected

• Often distant from resource production

• Connected through global systems

If people don't know or experience nature deeply, they may not value it enough to protect it.

Alternative perspectives on biodiversity

Biodiversity and ecosystem services are only particular ways of describing and valuing nature. Developing knowledge and personal connections with nature can change how people perceive and value it, which can encourage conservation. This is captured by the idea that “shallow contact leads to shallow conservation.” Dasmann’s distinction between ecosystem people and biosphere people further shows that people can relate to nature either through direct, place-based dependence on local ecosystems or indirectly through global systems of production and consumption.

Defining Problems

Well structured (simple) vs ill-structured (complex) problems

Spectrum:

• Agreement or conflict on values

• Number of stakeholders

• Confidence in information

• Knowledge and probability of outcomes

Characteristics of Wicked Problems

unique

complex

uncertain

multiple views

persistent

unstable

Wicked Problems—why hard to solve?

Challenges in definition

Conflict

Unpredictable and uncertain consequences

Requires change to behaviour

Requires action of multiple stakeholders

Complexity

no single correct solution

process itself is critical

current approaches are necessary, but not sufficient

Precautionary Principle

better safe than sorry

Banned or regulated until proven safe

scientific uncertainty

huge influence on environmental management approaches

Adaptive management

• dealing with scientific uncertainty

• learn by doing

• systematic, iterative

• open to acknowledging past mistakes

• co-management

Public participation