Psychology: Memory Foundations

Memory

Learning that has persisted over time.

Three Steps of Memory Processing

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory storage.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information for later use.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Stages

Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of incoming sensory information.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage holding limited information, roughly 20 seconds without rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent storage with a very large, effectively limitless capacity.

Rehearsal

Repetition that keeps information active and aids transfer into long-term memory.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Revision

Acknowledged automatic processing without rehearsal and redefined short-term memory as active working memory.

Working Memory

A system that temporarily holds and actively processes information.

Automatic Processing

Processing information with little or no conscious effort.

Effortful Processing

Processing that requires deliberate attention and effort.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy Effect

Better memory for items presented at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better memory for items presented at the end of a list.

Iconic Memory

A very brief visual sensory memory, like a fleeting photograph.

Sperling's 1960 Experiment

Showed that more visual information is briefly available than people can report before it fades.

Echoic Memory

A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts several seconds.

Iconic vs. Echoic Memory Duration

Echoic memory lasts longer (several seconds) than iconic memory (fractions of a second).

Adaptive Purpose of Sensory Memory

Briefly preserves sensory input so information can be processed after the stimulus ends.

Unrehearsed Short-Term Memory

Short-term information is quickly lost without active processing or rehearsal.

Miller's Short-Term Memory Capacity

About seven items, plus or minus two (7 ± 2).

Chunking

Grouping separate items into larger, meaningful units.

How Chunking Improves Memory

Uses limited short-term storage more efficiently by treating several items as one unit.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to meaning and knowledge already stored in memory.

Semantic Coding

Representing information in memory by its meaning.

Visual Coding

Representing information in memory as images.

Procedural Memory

Memory for learned skills and habits, such as riding a bicycle.

Declarative memory

Memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled and described.

Semantic memory

Declarative memory for facts and general knowledge about the world.

Recall

Retrieving information without being shown the answer, as on an essay test.

Recognition

Identifying information previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

Learning something again, often more quickly because of earlier learning.

Context-dependent memory

Better retrieval when the external setting matches the setting where learning occurred.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) Study

Tested scuba divers who learned material underwater or on land and were tested in the same or different setting.

Godden & Baddeley Finding

Recall was about 40% higher when learning and testing settings matched.

State-dependent memory

Better retrieval when a person's internal state matches the state present during learning.

Context vs. State-dependent memory

Context concerns the external environment; state concerns the person's internal condition.

Adaptive purpose of forgetting

Reduces irrelevant details and helps focus on useful information and general patterns.

Solomon Shereshevskii (S.)

A man studied by Luria with exceptional memory who could recall long lists after many years.

S.'s memory capacity

Could recite lists forward and backward even 15 years after initial learning.

Drawbacks of S.'s exceptional memory

Difficulty forgetting details, thinking abstractly, and functioning efficiently.

Encoding failure

Failure to remember because information was never adequately entered into memory.

Interference

Competition between memories that makes remembering more difficult.

Proactive interference

Older information interferes with learning or remembering newer information.

Retroactive interference

Newer information interferes with remembering older information.

Example of proactive interference

An old password making it hard to remember a new password.

Example of retroactive interference

A new password making it hard to remember an old password.

Core question in thinking lecture

Whether humans are inherently rational or irrational.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar people, places, objects, ideas, or events; building blocks of abstract thought.

Semantic networks

Organized networks of related concepts stored in long-term memory.

Priming

Activation of one concept makes related concepts easier to access.

Meyer & Schvaneveldt (1971) study

Demonstrated that related concepts in semantic memory prime one another.

Prototype

A typical or especially representative member of a category.

Prototypicality effect

More typical category examples are recognized as members more easily.

Bypassing new problem solutions

Generating a new solution is unnecessary when a usable solution can be retrieved from memory.

Meyer & Schvaneveldt (1971) Study

Demonstrated that related concepts in semantic memory can prime one another.

Prototypicality in Categorization

More typical examples are recognized as category members more easily.

Retrieving Solutions from Memory

Eliminates the need to generate a new solution when a usable one exists.

Problem Representation

Forming a mental description or model of a problem to help solve it.

Mental Image

A mental representation of a sensory experience, such as picturing an object.

Mental Model

An internal representation of how something works that assists reasoning.

Four Problem-Solving Strategies

Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight.

Trial and Error

A problem-solving strategy of trying various solutions until one works.

Limitation of Trial and Error

Can be inefficient due to trying many unsuccessful options.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure guaranteed to produce a correct solution when applied properly.

Drawback of an Algorithm

Can require many steps and take a significant amount of time.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that aids problem solving without guaranteeing success.

Algorithms vs. Heuristics

Algorithms guarantee solutions; heuristics are shortcuts that can fail.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Representation Failure

Formatting a problem in a way that hides its solution.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to view an object only in terms of its standard function.

Matchbox-and-Thumbtack Example

Illustrates functional fixedness when a box is viewed only as a container, not a support.

Mental Set

A tendency to use a familiar approach that hinders finding new solutions.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking evidence that supports a belief while ignoring contradicting evidence.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto a belief even after supporting evidence has been discredited.

Confirmation Bias vs. Belief Perseverance

Confirmation bias influences evidence gathering; belief perseverance retains discredited beliefs.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how closely something matches a typical prototype.

Language

Spoken, written, or signed symbols and rules for combining them to communicate.

Adaptive Purpose of Animal Communication

Promotes survival and reproduction across species.

Three Universal Characteristics of Language

Semanticity, generativity, and displacement.

Semanticity

The property of language where symbols convey specific meanings.

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive sound unit in a spoken language.

Morpheme

The smallest language unit that carries explicit meaning.

Generativity

The ability to create an unlimited variety of new expressions using language rules.

Basis of Language Generativity

Grammar, including semantics and syntax.

Semantics

Rules and processes used to derive meaning from words and sentences.

Syntax

Rules governing how words are arranged into sentences.

Displacement

Using language to discuss things outside the immediate situation, such as past or future events.

Learning Approach to Language Development

Explains language acquisition through association, imitation, and reinforcement.

Association in Language Learning

Connecting words with the objects, actions, or experiences they represent.

Imitation in Language Learning

Copying the spoken language heard from other people.

Reinforcement in Language Learning

Responses such as praise that encourage a child's language use.

Operant Conditioning in Language

Reinforced language behaviors become more likely to occur again.

Inborn Universal Grammar View

The theory that humans possess an innate capacity for acquiring language structure.

Evidence for Innate Language View

Children acquire complex language rapidly, beyond what basic learning principles alone explain.

Intelligence

The capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Reification

Treating an abstract concept, such as intelligence, as if it were a concrete physical thing.