Nutrition Mid term study set

What substance protects cells from being damaged or destroyed by harmful factors?

An antioxidant (protects against free radicals).

How do we obtain essential nutrients?

From food and beverages, because the body cannot synthesize them in sufficient amounts.

What is the leading cause of diet-related death in the United States?

Heart disease (cardiovascular disease).

What is an empty-calorie food? Give examples.

Foods high in calories from added sugars and/or solid fats with very few vitamins or minerals (e.g., regular soda, candy, donuts, chips, alcohol).

What are the consequences to a newborn when a pregnant mother is undernourished?

Low birth weight, premature birth, impaired physical and cognitive development, and increased risk of infant mortality or chronic disease later in life.

How have Americans changed their consumption of the food groups?

Americans consume too many refined grains, added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium, and too few fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and dairy.

Which governmental office ensures the safety and effectiveness of medications in the U.S.?

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

What is a dietary supplement? Give examples.

An oral product containing a dietary ingredient intended to supplement the diet (e.g., Vitamin D, calcium, iron, echinacea, amino acids, probiotics).

How can you determine if a website is providing biased, unreliable nutrition information?

Look for .com domains selling products, uncredentialed/anonymous authors, lack of peer-reviewed citations, and sensational claims (reliable sites end in .gov, .edu, or established .org).

What information in an advertisement is considered a "red flag"?

Promises of a "quick fix," miracle cures, claims that one product treats multiple unrelated diseases, reliance on testimonials over clinical trials, or claims doctors are "hiding" the cure.

Where can you find recommended vitamin amounts for your age group?

In the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)—specifically the RDA or AI tables—and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

What are the food groups included in MyPlate?

Fruits, Vegetables, Grains, Protein Foods, and Dairy.

What health claims can and cannot be listed on food packages according to the FDA?

Allowed: Authorized/qualified claims linking a nutrient to reduced disease risk and structure/function claims. Not Allowed: Claims that a food or supplement can diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent a disease.

What are key dietary restrictions for Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Seventh-day Adventists?

Judaism (Kosher): No pork/shellfish; no mixing meat and dairy. Islam (Halal): No pork, alcohol, or blood; ritual slaughter. Hinduism: Avoid beef; many are lacto-vegetarian. Seventh-day Adventist: Mostly lacto-ovo vegetarian; avoid alcohol, caffeine, and pork.

What is the function of the digestive system?

Breaks down food mechanically and chemically into absorbable nutrients, absorbs nutrients into the blood/lymph, and eliminates waste.

How can Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) be treated?

Identify and avoid trigger foods (e.g., low-FODMAP diet), manage stress, eat smaller regular meals, adjust soluble fiber, and stay hydrated.

How can a patient with GERD reduce their likelihood of developing heartburn?

Eat smaller frequent meals, avoid lying down for 2–3 hours after eating, elevate the head of the bed, lose excess weight, and avoid triggers (caffeine, alcohol, peppermint, chocolate, spicy/fatty/acidic foods).

What is metabolism?

The sum of all chemical reactions in living cells that maintain life, including catabolism (breaking down molecules for energy) and anabolism (building complex molecules).

How are dietary lipids digested and transported throughout the body?

Bile emulsifies fats in the small intestine; pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Short/medium-chain fatty acids enter the blood directly; long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides form chylomicrons and enter the lymphatic system before the bloodstream.

What is the smallest living, functional unit in an organism?

The cell.

What physical findings indicate a patient is at high risk for metabolic syndrome?

Abdominal obesity (large waist circumference), high blood pressure, high fasting blood glucose, high triglycerides, and low HDL cholesterol.

What blood glucose readings indicate a Type 1 diabetic needs candy/fruit juice vs. insulin?

Below 70 mg/dL (hypoglycemia) requires fast-acting carbs like candy or 4 oz fruit juice. High blood glucose (hyperglycemia, typically >240–250 mg/dL or above target range) requires insulin.

What complications could a baby of an uncontrolled Type 1 diabetic have?

Macrosomia (high birth weight), neonatal hypoglycemia after birth, jaundice, respiratory distress syndrome, and birth defects.

Which disaccharide is found in milk?

Lactose (composed of glucose + galactose).

Which foods are considered starches?

Potatoes, corn, peas, winter squash, bread, pasta, rice, oats, and legumes (beans/lentils).

What type of sugar is fructose?

A monosaccharide (simple sugar found naturally in fruits and honey).

What complications might an uncontrolled Type 2 diabetic experience?

Cardiovascular disease, neuropathy (nerve damage), nephropathy (kidney damage), retinopathy (blindness), poor wound healing, and amputations.

What are the three most important dietary monosaccharides for humans?

Glucose, fructose, and galactose.

What does the body do with excess starch and sugar that is ingested?

First converts it to glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles; once glycogen stores are full, excess glucose is converted into triglycerides (fat) and stored in adipose tissue.

What do adipose cells do?

Store excess energy as triglycerides, insulate the body, cushion organs, and secrete hormones (like leptin).

What should you tell a female patient trying to get pregnant about alcohol?

Completely abstain from alcohol, as there is no known safe amount or safe time to drink during pregnancy (prevents Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders).

How is alcohol metabolized in the body?

Primarily in the liver by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) into acetaldehyde and then acetate at a fixed rate (~1 standard drink per hour).

What is the purpose of lipids in the body?

Concentrated energy source (9 kcal/g), insulation and organ padding, cell membrane structure (phospholipids), fat-soluble vitamin transport (A, D, E, K), and hormone/bile production.

What should you limit in your diet to lower blood cholesterol levels?

Limit saturated fats (fatty meats, butter, full-fat dairy, tropical oils) and eliminate trans fats (partially hydrogenated oils).

Carbohydrate

Organic compounds (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen) serving as the body's primary energy source (4 kcal/g). Example: Oatmeal, glucose. Non-example: Olive oil.

Cholesterol

A waxy sterol found only in animal tissues used to make hormones, vitamin D, and bile. Example: Egg yolk, beef. Non-example: Avocado, olive oil.

Glycogen

The storage form of glucose in animals/humans, stored in the liver and muscles. Example: Muscle glycogen. Non-example: Plant starch or dietary fiber.

Triglycerides

Major form of lipid in food and the body (three fatty acids + glycerol). Example: Butter, body fat. Non-example: Cholesterol, glucose.

Atherosclerosis

Narrowing and hardening of arteries due to fatty plaque buildup. Example: Coronary artery blockage. Non-example: Osteoporosis.

Sustainable Agriculture

Farming practices that protect the environment, conserve resources, and remain economically viable long-term. Example: Crop rotation. Non-example: Slash-and-burn monoculture.

Organic Agriculture

Farming without synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, GMOs, antibiotics, or growth hormones. Example: USDA-certified organic apples. Non-example: Produce labeled "natural".

Disclaimer

A statement limiting responsibility or clarifying claims have not been medically verified. Example: "Statements have not been evaluated by the FDA" on a supplement. Non-example: FDA drug approval.

Placebo

An inactive substance or sham treatment given to a control group in an experiment. Example: A sugar pill in a drug trial. Non-example: Active 500 mg Vitamin C pill.

Testimonial

A personal endorsement praising a product's effectiveness, often used in marketing. Example: Celebrity social media ad for detox tea. Non-example: Peer-reviewed clinical study.

Positive Correlation

A statistical relationship where two variables increase or decrease together in the same direction. Example: Higher soda intake linked to higher obesity rates. Non-example: Higher fiber linked to lower cholesterol.

Anecdotal

Evidence based on casual personal observations or isolated stories rather than scientific research. Example: "My friend lost 10 lbs on this herb." Non-example: Double-blind clinical trial.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the active treatment, serving as a baseline. Example: Participants receiving a placebo. Non-example: Participants receiving the active drug.

DRI

Dietary Reference Intakes; nutrient reference values (RDA, AI, EAR, UL) used to plan and assess healthy diets. Example: RDA of 1,000 mg/day calcium. Non-example: Nutrition Facts % Daily Value alone.

MyPlate

USDA visual food guide showing proportions of the five food groups for a healthy meal. Example: Filling half the plate with fruits and veggies. Non-example: Keto macro chart.

Exchange System

Meal-planning tool grouping foods by similar carb, protein, fat, and calorie content per serving. Example: Swapping 1 slice bread for 1/3 cup rice. Non-example: Swapping broccoli for butter.

Enzyme

A protein catalyst that accelerates specific biochemical reactions in living organisms. Example: Amylase, lactase, lipase. Non-example: Lactose (sugar), bile.

Catalyst

Any substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process. Example: Enzymes. Non-example: Glucose (reactant).

Electron

A negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus of an atom. Example: Particle transferred in an ionic bond. Non-example: Proton (+), Neutron (neutral).

Mitochondrion

Cell organelle that converts chemical energy from nutrients into ATP. Example: Site of the Krebs cycle in muscle cells. Non-example: Ribosome, cell wall.

Organelle

Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions. Example: Nucleus, mitochondrion. Non-example: Liver, stomach (organs).

Atom

Smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical properties. Example: A single carbon (C) atom. Non-example: A water molecule (H2O).

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains electrons. Example: Chloride ion (Cl-). Non-example: Sodium ion (Na+, a cation).

Acid

Substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution (pH < 7). Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in stomach. Non-example: Baking soda.

Base

Substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) or releases hydroxide ions (OH-) (pH > 7). Example: Pancreatic bicarbonate. Non-example: Lemon juice, vinegar.

Compound

Substance formed when two or more different elements chemically bond together. Example: Water (H2O), salt (NaCl). Non-example: Pure oxygen gas (O2).

Element

Pure substance made of only one type of atom that cannot be broken down chemically. Example: Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca). Non-example: Water (H2O).

Solvent

A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances (solutes). Example: Water in blood plasma. Non-example: Salt or sugar crystals (solutes).

Chyme

Semi-liquid mass of partially digested food and gastric juices leaving the stomach. Example: Acidic paste entering the duodenum. Non-example: Bolus (swallowed food entering stomach).

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal physiological environment despite external changes. Example: Insulin/glucagon regulating blood sugar. Non-example: Uncontrolled fever.

Gastroesophageal Reflux (GERD)

Chronic backflow of stomach acid into the esophagus due to a weak lower esophageal sphincter. Example: Frequent heartburn and acid regurgitation. Non-example: Gallstones.

Crohn's

Chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) causing patchy, deep inflammation anywhere along the GI tract. Example: Inflammation of the ileum/small intestine. Non-example: Lactose intolerance.

Chronic Constipation

Persistent difficulty passing stools or infrequent bowel movements (<3/week) over several weeks. Example: Hard stools from low fiber/fluid intake. Non-example: Acute diarrhea.

Colon Cancer

Malignant tumor growth arising from polyps in the inner lining of the large intestine. Example: Colorectal adenocarcinoma. Non-example: Benign hemorrhoids.

Diverticulitis

Inflammation or infection of small pouches (diverticula) in the walls of the colon. Example: Left-lower abdominal pain and fever from infected pouches. Non-example: Celiac disease.

Type 1 Diabetes

Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells resulting in little to no insulin production. Example: Child requiring lifelong insulin injections. Non-example: Adult-onset insulin resistance.

Type 2 Diabetes

Metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency. Example: Hyperglycemia managed with diet, exercise, and oral meds. Non-example: Autoimmune beta cell destruction.

Gestational Diabetes

Glucose intolerance/high blood sugar that develops for the first time during pregnancy. Example: Elevated glucose tolerance test at 24–28 weeks pregnant. Non-example: Pre-existing Type 1 diabetes.

Essential Fatty Acids

Fatty acids the body cannot make and must get from food (omega-6 linoleic and omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid). Example: Salmon, walnuts, flaxseed. Non-example: Cholesterol, saturated fat.

Prostaglandins

Hormone-like compounds made from essential fatty acids that regulate inflammation, blood pressure, and clotting. Example: Eicosanoids regulating blood vessel dilation. Non-example: Digestive enzymes.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units bonded together. Example: Starch, glycogen, fiber (cellulose). Non-example: Sucrose, glucose.