Chronic Diseases: COPD, Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Conditions, and Cancer

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the pathophysiology, clinical diagnostics, anatomical changes, risk factors, and therapeutic approaches for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), Cardiovascular Diseases, and Cancer.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

A chronic, non-communicable respiratory disease defined by persistent airflow obstruction in the small airways (bronchioles and alveoli), typically resulting from a combination of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Alveoli

Microscopic air sacs within the lungs where respiratory gas exchange occurs, representing the direct structural intersection between the respiratory and vascular systems.

COPD Exacerbation

An acute worsening of respiratory symptoms in COPD patients, typically triggered by microbial pathogens such as viruses, which causes substantial harm and accelerates mortality following severe and repeated occurrences.

Spirometry

A non-invasive pulmonary function test measuring the forced expiratory volume expelled in 1 second ($\text{FEV}_1$) relative to forced vital capacity ($\text{FVC}$), where a consistent ratio of $\text{FEV}_1 < 70\%$ of $\text{FVC}$ confirms airflow obstruction.

$\beta_2$ Agonists (in COPD)

A class of pharmacological bronchodilators that act as muscle relaxants on airway smooth muscle to facilitate breathing in patients with COPD.

Corticosteroids (in COPD)

A class of pharmacological anti-inflammatory medications administered via an inhaler (puffer) to suppress airway inflammation and reduce pathological mucus accumulation.

Type 2 Diabetes (T2D)

A chronic, non-communicable metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia resulting from a combination of peripheral insulin resistance and pancreatic insulin deficiency.

Insulin Resistance

A pathological state in which peripheral cells exhibit damaged or unresponsive insulin receptors, preventing glucose from entering cells and causing it to accumulate in the bloodstream.

Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)

An intermediate prediabetic stage between normal glucose tolerance (NGT) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), where insulin production plateaus or begins to decline due to pancreatic beta-cell exhaustion while blood glucose levels rise.

Glycated Hemoglobin (A1C) Test

A diagnostic blood test measuring the percentage of hemoglobin bound to glucose; values below $5.7\%$ are considered normal, $5.7\% - 6.4\%$ indicate prediabetes, and $6.5\%$ or above diagnose diabetes.

Fasting Blood Sugar Test

A diagnostic test measuring plasma glucose after an overnight fast; diagnostic thresholds indicate normal at $99\,\text{mg/dL}$ or below, prediabetes at $100 - 125\,\text{mg/dL}$, and diabetes at $126\,\text{mg/dL}$ or above.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

A diagnostic assessment of blood glucose clearance following a glucose load; values of $140\,\text{mg/dL}$ or below are normal, $140 - 199\,\text{mg/dL}$ indicate prediabetes, and $200\,\text{mg/dL}$ or above diagnose diabetes.

Diabetic Nephropathy

Damage to the functional filtration units (nephrons) of the kidneys caused by prolonged chronic hyperglycemia, potentially leading to end-stage kidney failure.

Diabetic Neuropathy

Nerve damage resulting from chronic elevated blood glucose levels that can cause loss of sensation and lead to complications necessitating the amputation of extremities.

GLUT4 Translocation

The intracellular trafficking mechanism by which GLUT4 glucose transporters translocate to and insert into the cell membrane in response to exercise-induced signaling pathways (such as AMPK and CaMKs) or insulin, facilitating glucose uptake from the blood.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

A condition characterized by the progressive accumulation of atherosclerotic plaque within the coronary arteries, restricting oxygenated blood flow to cardiac tissue and potentially causing angina, myocardial infarction, or sudden cardiac death.

Atherosclerosis

The pathological arterial remodeling process initiated by endothelial dysfunction, leading to monocyte adhesion and infiltration into the intima, leukocyte signaling, smooth muscle cell migration, and subsequent plaque formation.

Ischemic Stroke

A cerebrovascular accident occurring when a thrombus or embolus occludes an intracranial artery, depriving cerebral tissues of oxygen and essential nutrients.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

A severe form of stroke caused by the rupture of a blood vessel inside or around the brain, leading to intracranial bleeding and compression of neural tissue.

Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

A circulatory disorder characterized by partial or complete occlusion of blood supply through the distal arteries of the body, primarily driven by atherosclerosis and loss of arterial wall elasticity.

Arrhythmia

An abnormality in the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat resulting from electrical conduction disturbances, presenting as an abnormally rapid rate (tachycardia), slow rate (bradycardia), or irregular beat (extrasystole, flutter, fibrillation).

Cardiomyopathy

A broad category of heart muscle diseases characterized by structural and functional abnormalities, such as ventricular wall thickening (hypertrophic) or ventricular chamber dilation accompanied by muscle weakness (dilated).

Congenital Heart Disease

Structural cardiac malformations present at birth, ranging from minor defects to severe lesions; prominent examples include atrial septal defect (ASD) and ventricular septal defect (VSD).

Balloon Angioplasty

A non-pharmacological revascularization intervention where an inflatable balloon catheter is threaded into a stenotic artery and expanded to compress plaque and restore luminal diameter.

Cancer

A group of chronic, non-communicable diseases marked by abnormal cells dividing uncontrollably, escaping apoptosis, and acquiring the ability to invade contiguous tissues or spread to distant anatomical sites.

Metastasis

The multi-step process wherein invasive malignant cancer cells enter blood vessels or lymphatic channels, circulate throughout the body, and establish secondary tumor sites in distant organs.

Malignant Tumor

A cancerous mass of cells that invades surrounding healthy tissues, can enter circulation to establish secondary tumors, and has the propensity to recur after surgical excision.

Benign Tumor

A non-cancerous cellular growth that remains localized, does not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body, and typically does not regenerate after surgical removal.

Carcinoma

The most common form of cancer, originating from transformed epithelial cells that line internal organs, body cavities, and external skin surfaces (e.g., breast, prostate, lung, and colorectal cancers).

Sarcoma

A malignant neoplasm originating in mesenchymal tissues, including bone and soft tissues such as muscle, fat, fibrous connective tissue, blood vessels, ligaments, and nerves.

Leukemia

A hematologic cancer originating in the bone marrow characterized by the rapid proliferation of abnormal white blood cells that displace healthy blood cells without forming solid tumors.

Lymphoma

A malignancy of the immune system characterized by abnormal clonal proliferation of lymphocytes (B cells or T cells) within lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Myeloma

A cancer originating from abnormal plasma cells within the bone marrow that normally produce antibodies, often leading to osteolytic bone lesions.

Carcinogen

Any biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent (such as tobacco chemicals, ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma radiation) capable of causing genetic mutations that lead to carcinogenesis.

Hyperthermia (in Cancer Therapy)

A non-pharmacological therapeutic modality involving the application of heat to a tumor to directly damage malignant cells and increase their vulnerability to radiation therapy.

Targeted Therapy

A pharmacological approach to cancer treatment that utilizes agents specifically engineered to target distinct proteins and molecular drivers within cancer cells necessary for their growth and survival.

Immunotherapy (in Cancer Therapy)

A class of pharmacological treatments designed to boost, restore, or direct the host immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells.