psych solo quest 1

Social neuroscience

influence of other ppl on the behavioral responses coordinated by the brain

Cognitive neuroscience

influence of coordinated brain activity

Neurons

Sensory neuron: info about the environment from special sense organs in the brain

Motor neuron: info to the muscles/glands of the body

Interneuron: info between neurons from one area to another

Glial cells

Provide structural support/fucntional support for neurons

• Energy 

• Physical support 

• Prevents chemicals from entering 

• Fights infections 

1. Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheath 

2. Microglia: increase function by breaking down/removing dead/damaged cells as an immune response 

3. Astrocytes: most common. Structure, nutrients, ideal environment, prevent toxins from entering the brain's bloodstream 

Action potential

• Stimulus threshold 

• Resting potential: state when neuron is prepared to activate/communicate message if reached stim threshold

• Polarized: waiting to be activated 

Process of neurotransmission 

1. Neuron is negatively charged inside pos charged outside. K in, Na out 

2. Depolarization: Na gates open, Na rushes in > positive charge. 

3. K ions leave; neuron is back to resting potential 

4. Refractory period: repolarizes. K re-enters and Na leaves 

Self propagated 

Important neurotransmitters

ACh, dopamine, serotonin and norenephrine

• Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): 

  • Glutamate conveys excitatory messages 

  • GABA conveys inhibitory messages 

• Endorphins: a class of neurotransmitters that respond to pain/stress 

what happens when there is too much/little of these neurotransmitters

Too little ACh > Alzheimers

too little dopamine > parkinsons

too little serotonin > depression

too much glutamate > seizures

too much GABA > impaired motivation/movement/learning; too little > seizures

Drugs and neurotransmissions

Either acts like a neurotransmitter or blocks chemical signal/reuptake. Acts as an agonist or antagonist

CNS

Brain and spinal cord

• Surrounding is 3 layers of protection called meninges 

• brain/spinal cord is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid

  • Fluid fills four canals called ventricles

Everything is a function of electrochemical signals in the brain/spinal cord

• The brain receives and sends out motor info to react to the environment

• Spinal cord organizes incoming/outcoming messages 

Sensory receptors > sensory nerves in the spinal cord > brain > down spinal cord > relayed in the body to the muscles 

Peripheral nervous system

All nerves outside of the CNS 

• Collects sensory info, organizes motor info, coordinates organs in response to energy states and the environment 

Somatic nervous system 

Voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that receives information from sensory receptors along sensory nerves and communicates it to the CNS, and sends motor signals to muscles 

Autonomic nervous system 

Subdivision. Regulates autonomic functions, related to arousal and energy states, influenced by physical activity and experiencing emotions 

• Sympathetic nervous system: rapidly activates systems to meet demands in the environment/threats or emergencies, involved in energy use 

• Parasympathetic nervous system: conserves/maintains physical resources  

Brain imaging techniques you didn’t already know

• Diffusion MRI: neural connections by tracking water molecules along myelinated axons

• PET scan: color coded images by tracking drug - invasive 

Plasticity and neurogenesis

• Functional plasticity: shift functions to damaged to undamaged 

• Structural: change physical structure 

• Neurogenesis: dendritic branching 

hindbrain: base of brainstem

regulate basic life functions. 3 structures:

1. Medulla: vital life functions eg heart rate, reflexes eg vomiting 

2. Helps regulate sleep, breathing, and arousal and acts as a bridge between brain regions.

3. Cerebellum: muscle coordination, complex movements, equilibrium, habits 

• reticular formation: in pons and medulla, alertness, attention, and arousal, helping you stay awake and responsive.

midbrain: above the hindbrain (base of brainstem)

an important relay station that contains centers involved in the processing of sensory information, and sends signals that influence complex processes like attention.

Limbic system

forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem. Involved in motivation, emotion, learning, memory.

Hippocampus

forebrain and limbic system, embedded in temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere. Form new memories of events and information.

Thalamus

forebrain and each cerebral hemisphere. Processes sensory information (except smell). processes/distributes motor/sensory information to and from cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

helps regulate pituitary hormones, regulates both divisions of autonomic nervous system, increases and decreases functions.

Amygdala

base of temporal lobe. Emotional responses

Cerebral cortex

Layered part of brain tissue that covers the whole brain and is responsible for complex/cognitive processing. Aka grey matter. Increases surface area to volume ratio. 

• Cerebral hemispheres are connected by corpus callosum. Primary communication link. 

occipital lobe (cerebral hemispheres)

back. Receives visual information. Contains primary visual cortex where information from the eyes is processed to create visual experiences. Also contains visual association cortex which lets us make sense of visual stimuli received in primary visual cortex.

Parietal lobe

each hemisphere processes the body’s sensations. Primary somatosensory cortex receives sensory information from touch receptors from different parts of the body

temporal lobe

near the temples. Receives auditory information. Contains primary auditory cortex

Frontal lobe

largest. Processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control

• Primary motor cortex: represents muscle movements. 

• Prefrontal cortex: “central executive” coordinates cognitive functions, helps us understand people's minds, personality. 

Language and the left hemisphere

Cortical localization: specific areas associated with specific functions. 

• Broca's area: frontal lobe of dominant hemisphere (usually left). Critical for speech production 

• Wernicke's area: temporal lobe of dominant hemisphere, crucial for language comprehension 

Producing language and understanding language are different parts of the brain 

• Lateralization of function: specific cognitive/psychological functions are processed primarily on 1 side of the brain

  • speech/language are lateralized on the left. 

The split brain: cutting the corpus callosum

• Originally cut to reduce seizures. BUT information projected to the right hemisphere was not sent to the left. (left verbal, right nonverbal) 

Can be summarized into:

• The right as figuring out important and potentially dangerous situations

• Left for problem solving, language, interpreting/synthesizing our experiences into a cohesive perception

(not strict, sometimes both)

• Many areas of the cortex are in similar areas across right and left hemispheres 

3 basic characteristics of emotion

1. Activation: initiation/production of behavior 

2. Persistence 

3. Intensity 

Instinct theories: Classic theories of motivation

• Behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming. 

• But just describing/labeling behaviors doesn't explain the motivation. Therefore, the evolutionary perspective is used 

instinct theories replaced by drive theories: Classic theories of motivation

• Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs 

• Triggered by internal mechanisms of homeostasis

• Drive = need/internal motivational state that activates behavior to reduce the need and restore homeostasis

Incentive theories: Classic theories of motivation

• Behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, e.g., rewards/consequences

• Reinforcement 

Arousal theory: Classic theories of motivation

• Ppl are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal

• If too low, seek arousal. If too high, reduce arousal. 

• Optimum varies in people

Humanistic theories of motivation: Classic theories of motivation

• Emphasizes psychological and cognitive factors in motivation, especially the notion that people are motivated to realize their personal potential 

• Jeopardized by an unsupportive environment

Urge to satisfy physiological needs: Classic theories of motivation

Emerges after biological needs are met

Hierarchy of needs: Classic theories of motivation

Hypothesized levels of motivation that involve basic physical needs, psychological needs, and self-fulfillment needs

Need to belong: Classic theories of motivation

• The drive to form/maintain lasting positive relationships that are characterized by mutual concern and caring 

• Need for affiliation: associate with like-minded people in social groups 

  • Without it leads to loneliness, which decreases psychological and physical well-being 

Self-determination theory: Contemporary theories of motivation

Optimal human functioning can only occur if the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. Ppl are actively growth-oriented, and they move toward a unified sense of self and integration with others. 

3 innate universal psychological needs: 

1. Autonomy: our behavior is harmonious with our own interests and values 

2. Competence: learn/master tasks 

3. Relatedness: feel attached to others and experience belonging

•  Intrinsic motivation: desire to do tasks that are satisfying, novel, challenging, enjoyable

  • Needs are satisfied through a supportive environment 

• Extrinsic motivation: external factors or influences on behavior, e.g., rewards, consequences, social expectations

Achievement goal theory: Contemporary theories of motivation

Success as a motivator. Desire to direct your behavior towards excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task.

• Individualist cultures emphasize individual success. Collectivist cultures’ achievement orientation is more socially and group oriented

Emotion

Emotion: complex psychological state that involves 3 distinct/related components:

1. Cognitive experience

2. Physiological response 

3. Behavioral or expressive response 

Humans have emotion for two reasons: 

1. Understand the meaning of survival-related information from our experiences

2. Communicate with others and understand their experiences, most often through facial expression 

Mood does not equal emotion. Mood is more mild, general, pervasive. 

• Emotional intelligence: capacity to understand and manage your emotions, also perceive, understand, and respond to others' emotional responses 

Evolutionary explanations of emotion

Darwin argued that emotions reflect evolutionary adaptations to the problems of survival and reproduction. Emotions are a product of evolution, helping us solve adaptive problems posed by our environment.

• Quickly responding leads to increased survival and reproduction

Cognitive experience of emotion

Basic emotions: fundamental categories. Biologically innate, evolutionarily determined, culturally universal

• Fear, surprise, anger, sadness, disgust, happiness (probably more). Each represents a family of related emotional states 

• You must acknowledge the existence of mixed emotions 

• Classified into 2 dimensions: 

1. Degree of unpleasantness vs pleasantness 

2. Level of activation/arousal 

• Interpersonal engagement: how much an emotion involves others 

Expression of emotion

• Making faces (fusiform face area), tone of voice, emblems 

  • Emblems are nonverbal gestures

• Display rules: social regulations governing emotional expression, esp facial expression. Eg culture or gender 

Emotion and sympathetic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system: 

• Sympathetic triggers fight or flight. Involves hypothalamus, amygdala, and adrenal glands 

• Microexpressions and lying 

  • Increased heart rate = fear, anger, sadness. Anger increases skin temperature; fear decreases it

  • Blood pressure increase = anger 

Amygdala

Fear. Activating brain circuits involved in emotion/motivation for threats and rewards. Important for survival. 

• Becomes activated when you view threatening/fearful things, anticipation 

• When it's damaged, you can't distinguish between friendly and threatening

Process: 

1. See fear with visual stimulus → thalamus → amygdala (immediate reaction) → sympathetic nervous system → release stress hormones → more reactions IRL 

2. Visual stimulation → thalamus → cortex (visual cortex actually sees what you're seeing and sends it to prefrontal cortex → amygdala 

Both happen simultaneously. 2nd is twice as slow 

James-Lange theory of emotion

Emotion arises from perception of body changes. Emotion follows a sequence: 

1. Perceive a stimulus 

2. Physiological and behavioral changes occur which 

3. → we experience a particular emotion 

Walter Cannon opposed this, saying emotional response is quicker than physical response. 

Evidence supporting James-Lange

• Facial feedback hypothesis: expressing an emotion, esp facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion. So when someone mimics it, they may feel it

  • Facial muscles send feedback to the brain → activates emotional experience 

  • Ppl with Botox may have trouble mimicking emotion or picking up on emotion

Cognitive theories of emotion

• Two-factor theory: emotion is the interaction of physical arousal and cognitive label we apply to the arousal. Arousal alone cannot produce an emotional response 

• Cognitive appraisal theory: emotional responses are triggered by cognitive evaluation. (appraisal = cognitive interpretation)

Stress

negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are perceived as taxing or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope 

• Appraisal of events in the experience of stress 

Cognitive appraisal model

emphasizes the role of an individual's appraisal of events and situations and of the resources available to deal with the event or situation

1. Primary appraisal: evaluation of how harmful/difficult the event might be 

2. Secondary appraisal: evaluation of resources available to deal with the situation 

• Stress occurs when primary appraisal indicates a possibility of harm and secondary appraisal indicates few coping resources

Health psychology

biological, behavioral, social factors that influence health, illness, medical treatment, and health-related behaviors 

→ guided by biopsychosocial model: belief that physical health and illness are determined by complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors

Sources of stress

1. Changes: life events approach: changes, either positive or negative, produce stress 

2. Traumatic events 

Developing resilience: moderate levels of adversity = best health outcomes, healthier and cope better with stress 

3. Daily hassles: everyday/minor events that annoy or upset. Cumulatively add up, leading to decreased health 

* interpersonal conflict is the biggest source of stress for everyone 

4. Burnout: unhealthy condition caused by chronic, prolonged stress that is characterized by exhaustion, cynicism, sense of failure/inadequacy. When job demands > job resources 

• Produced by overload, lack of control. Prevented by a supportive community 

Social and cultural sources of stress

• Disadvantaged groups can experience chronic stress in everyday living conditions → associated with socioeconomic status (SES): the core of SES is income, education, and occupation. Decreased = more negative life events, daily hassles, fewer resources

• Low social status

• Race and discrimination - religion, sex, gender 

• Culture clash 

Physical effects of stress: mind-body connection

Indirectly affects physical health by increasing behaviors that harm physical well-being. Directly affects physical health by altering bodily functions → physical symptoms, illness, disease 

Stress and endocrine system

• fight/flight: rapidly occurring chain of physical reactions that prepare us to fight or flee. Sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system. 

→ sympathetic nervous system triggers adrenal glands to secrete catecholamines: hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla (the inner part of the adrenal glands) that cause rapid physiological arousal. Consists of adrenaline and noradrenaline.

• Acute stress: hypothalamus → sympathetic NS → adrenal medulla → secretion of catecholamines 

• Prolonged stress: hypothalamus → pituitary releases ACTH which travels to → adrenal cortex → secretion of corticosteroids (hormones for long-term stress)

  • Prolonged fight or flight is bad for physical health 

Stress and the general adaptation syndrome

In response to a stressor, the hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to secrete hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids 

• Stress hormone that provides harm and benefits 

General adaptation syndrome: Selye’s term for 3-stage progression of physical changes that occur when an organism is exposed to intense and prolonged stress

1. Alarm stage: adrenal medulla releases catecholamines. Intense arousal: body mobilizes internal physical resources to meet demands 

2. Resistance stage: physical arousal lessens but stays above average. Resistance to new stressors is impaired 

3. Exhaustion stage: if stress event persists, alarm stage reappears irreversibly. Body's energy reserves become depleted, and adaptation breaks down → exhaustion, physical disorders, death 

Stress, hormones, and aging: the telomere story

Telomeres: repeated, duplicate DNA sequences that are found at the very tips of chromosomes and that protect the chromosomes’ genetic material during cell division

• Each cell division → decreases telomere length until it can't divide anymore. But it can be lengthened by telomerase 

• Telomeres may be the link between stress and premature aging. Chronic stress = short telomeres

Stress and immune system

• Immune system: body system that produces specialized white blood cells that protect the body from viruses, bacteria, tumor cells

  • Lymphocytes: specialized white blood cells that fight bacteria, viruses, foreign invaders. Manufactured in bone marrow. 

• Psychoneuroimmunology: study of connections among psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system

1. CS and IS are linked via the sympathetic nervous system 

2. Surfaces of lymphocytes contain receptor sites for neurotransmitters and hormones → lymphocytes and the IS are directly influenced by neurotransmitters, hormones, and chemical messengers from the NS and ES 

3. Psychoneuroimmunology discovered that lymphocytes themselves produce neurotransmitters and hormones. These influence the NS and ES

Ongoing communication among NS, ES, and IS. 

Stress influencing the immune system

• Affected by major stress and common stress 

• Increases time for wounds to heal; more risk of infection

• Acute stress increases immune functioning

Individual factors that influence response to stress: Psychological Factors

• Personal control: people who can control a stress-producing event do not show more psychological distress/physical arousal than those who are not even exposed to a stressful event 

  • Control increases positive emotions 

• Explanatory style: optimism: external, unstable, specific explanations for negative events. vs. pessimism: internal, stable, global explanations 

  • Linked to health consequences 

• Chronic negative emotions

• Positive emotions: associated with increased resistance to infection, decreased illness, decreased symptoms and pain, increased longevity 

  • Bring calm to the cardiovascular, ES, IS; associated with health-promoting behaviors; more friends and stronger social network 

• Type A and hostility: type A is a behavior and emotional style characterized by a sense of time urgency, hostility, and competitiveness. Has a higher risk of illness compared to type B 

  • Hostility: angry, annoyed, resentful, contemptuous. Increased heart disease

Individual factors that influence response to stress: Social factors

• Social isolation: state of no social contact/releationships. Loneliness: unpleasant emotional state where a person desires more/better social contact and relationships 

  • Antidote: social support. Modifies our appraisal of stressors’ significance. Living longer is associated with diverse social networks 

  • Decrease physical reaction to a stressor

  • Less likely to experience negative emotions 

* Negative interactions can produce more stress than positive interactions can reduce stress

Providing effective social support

• Emotional support: expressions of concern, empathy, positive regard

• Tangible: direct assistance 

• Informational: offer suggestions, resources, advice

Coping

Coping: ways to try and change circumstances, our interpretation of circumstances, to make them more favorable/less threatening

• maladaptive coping and behaviors: thoughts and behaviors that intensify/prolong distress, produce defeating outcomes 

• adaptive coping: develop emotional tolerance, self-esteem, balancing emotions, preserve important relationships 

Problem-focused coping strategies: changing/managing the stressor 

• Planful problem solving: rationally analyze, identify solutions, implement solutions. Then you problem-solve. 

• Confrontative coping: head-on

Emotion-focused coping strategies: relieving/regulating emotional reaction 

• Escape avoidance: escape stressor and neutralize emotions

  • Only good short-term 

•  Seek social support

• Distancing: acknowledge stressor but decrease emotional impact 

• Denial: refusal to acknowledge 

• Positive appraisal: minimize negative aspects and create positive meaning 

• Positive religious coping vs negative religious coping 

* No best one. We often start with emotion-focused coping strategies and then go to problem-focused strategies. Implementing multiple is good.