Understanding Human Development: Approaches and Theories

Applied developmental science

A field that studies lifespan interactions between individuals and the contexts in which they live and applies research findings to real-world settings, such as to influence social policy and create interventions.

Behaviorism

A theoretical approach that studies how observable behavior is controlled by the physical and social environment through conditioning.

Bioecological Systems Theory

A theory introduced by Bronfenbrenner that emphasizes the role of context in development, positing that contexts are organized into a series of systems in which individuals are embedded and that interact with one another and the person to influence development.

case study

An in-depth examination of a single individual (or small group of individuals).

Child Assent

A child's agreement to participate in a study.

Chronosystem

In bioecological systems theory, refers to how the people and contexts change over time.

Classical conditioning

A form of learning in which an environmental stimulus becomes associated with stimuli that elicit reflex responses.

Cognitive Development

Maturation of mental processes and tools individuals use to obtain knowledge, think, and solve problems.

Cognitive schema

A mental representation, such as concepts, ideas, and ways of interacting with the world.

Cognitive-developmental theory

A perspective posited by Piaget that views individuals as active explorers of their world, learning by interacting with the world around them, and describes cognitive development as progressing through stages.

Cohort

A generation of people born at the same time, influenced by the same historical and cultural conditions.

Computerized tomography (CT scan)

Compiles multiple X-ray images to create a 3D picture of a person's brain, providing images of brain structures, bone, brain vasculature, and tissue.

Confidentiality

Researchers generally promise participants that their responses will not be disclosed to others.

Context

Unique conditions in which a person develops, including aspects of the physical and social environment such as family, neighborhood, culture, and historical time period.

Continuous Change

An aspect of development that unfolds slowly and gradually over time.

Correlational research

A research design that measures relationships among participants' measured characteristics, behaviors, and development.

Cross-sectional research study

A developmental research design that compares people of different ages at a single point in time to infer age differences.

Culture

A set of customs, knowledge, attitudes, and values shared by a group of people and learned through interactions with group members.

dependent variable

The behavior under study in an experiment; it is expected to be affected by changes in the independent variable.

Development

The processes by which individuals grow and change, as well as the ways in which they stay the same over time.

Developmental science

The study of human development at all points in life, from conception to death.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

Uses an MRI machine to track how water molecules move in and around the fibers connecting different parts of the brain, measure the brain's white matter, and determine changes that occur with development.

Discontinuous change

An aspect of development that is characterized by abrupt or stage-like change.

Domains of Development

A type or area of development, such as physical, cognitive, or socioemotional.

Dynamic systems theory

A framework describing motor skills as resulting from ongoing interactions among physical, cognitive, and socioemotional influences and environmental supports; previously mastered skills are combined to provide more complex and effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment.

Emerging adulthood

A developmental period between adolescence and early adulthood, extending from the completion of secondary education to the adoption of adult roles.

Ethology

Emphasizes the evolutionary basis of behavior and its adaptive value in ensuring survival of a species.

Evolutionary Developmental Theory

A perspective that applies principles of evolution and scientific knowledge about the interactive influence of genetic and environmental mechanisms to understand the adaptive value of developmental changes that are experienced with age.

Exosystem

In bioecological systems theory, social settings in which an individual does not participate but has an indirect influence on development.

Experimental Research

A research design that permits inferences about cause and effect by exerting control, systematically manipulating a variable, and studying the effects on measured variables.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Measures brain activity with a powerful magnet that uses radio waves and to measure blood oxygen level, an indicator of brain activity.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested.

independent variable

The factor proposed to change the behavior under study in an experiment; it is systematically manipulated during an experiment.

Information processing theory

A perspective that uses a computer analogy to describe how the mind receives information and manipulates, stores, recalls, and uses it to solve problems.

Informed consent

A participant's informed (knowledge of the scope of the research and potential harm and benefits of participating), rational, and voluntary agreement to participate in a study.

Intersectionality

The dynamic interrelations of social categories, such as gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, immigration status, age, and disabilities, and the interwoven systems of power and privilege that accompany social category membership.

Justice

The ethical principle that requires that risks and benefits of research participation must be spread equitably across individuals and groups.

Lifespan human development

An approach to studying human development that examines ways in which individuals grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives, from conception to death.

Longitudinal research study

A developmental study in which one group of participants is studied repeatedly to infer age changes.

Mesosystem

In bioecological systems theory, the relations and interactions among microsystems.

Microsystem

In bioecological systems theory, the innermost level of context, which includes an individual's immediate physical and social environment.

Naturalistic observation

A research method in which a researcher views and records an individual's behavior in natural, real-world settings.

Nature-nurture debate

A debate within the field of human development regarding whether development is caused by nature (genetics or heredity) or nurture (the physical and social environment).

Observational learning

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating models, as posited by social learning theory.

Ontogenetic development

Developmental changes within the individual, including interacting biological, cognitive, and socioemotional traits.

Open-ended interview

A research method in which a researcher asks a participant questions using a flexible, conversational style and may vary the order of questions, probe, and ask follow-up questions based on the participant's responses.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which behavior increases or decreases based on environmental consequences.

Passive consent

When conducting research on sensitive topics with adolescents, this procedure involves requiring parents to notify researchers if they do not want their child to participate.

Physical development

Body maturation, including body size, proportion, appearance, health, and perceptual abilities.

Plasticity

A characteristic of development refers to malleability or openness to change in response to experience.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Technique to examine brain activity by injecting a small dose of radioactive material into the participant's bloodstream.

Psychoanalytic theory

A perspective introduced by Freud that development and behavior are stage-like and influenced by inner drives, memories, and conflicts of which an individual is unaware and cannot control.

Punishment

In operant conditioning, the process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive or unpleasant outcome that decreases the likelihood of a response.

Questionnaire

A research method in which researchers use a survey or set of questions to collect data from large samples of people.

Random assignment

A method of assigning participants that ensures each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to the experimental group or control group.

Reciprocal determinism

A perspective positing that individuals and their environment interact and influence each other.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior is followed by a desirable outcome increases the likelihood of a response.

Resilience

The ability to adapt to serious adversity.

Respect for autonomy

The ethical principle that states researchers have a special obligation to respect participants' autonomy, their ability to make and implement decisions.

Responsibility

The ethical principle that requires researchers to act responsibly by adhering to professional standards of conduct and clarifying their obligations and roles to others.

Scientific method

The process of forming and answering questions using systematic observations and gathering information.

Sequential research design

A developmental design in which multiple groups of participants of different ages are followed over time, combining cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Social Learning Theory

An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling and observational learning over people's behavior in addition to reinforcement and punishment.

Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky's theory that individuals acquire culturally relevant ways of thinking through social interactions with members of their culture.

Socioemotional Development

Maturation of social and emotional functioning, which includes changes in personality, emotions, personal perceptions, social skills, and interpersonal relationships.

Structured interview

A research method in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way.

Structured observation

An observational measure in which an individual's behavior is viewed and recorded in a controlled environment; a situation created by the experimenter.

Theory

An organized set of observations to describe, explain, and predict a phenomenon.