Ancient History: Religion, Society, and Political Life in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering religion, social classes, housing, leisure, health, infrastructure, and political structures in ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum.

What was the lararium, and where was it typically located in a Roman household?

The lararium was a shrine where Roman religious practices were typically carried out, located in the atrium.

Who were the Lares, and how were they worshipped within the household?

The Lares were household deities depicted as a pair of dancing youths who protected the family; their shrine was kept in a cupboard, and any dropped food at mealtime was offered to them.

What was the Genius, and on what occasion was it worshipped?

The Genius was the god of the male line of descent, worshipped on the birthday of the paterfamilias (the Head of the Roman household).

Who were the Penates, and where were their statues placed during meals?

The Penates were the gods of food storage, and their statue was placed on the dining table at mealtime.

What is a major archaeological limitation regarding temples in Herculaneum compared to Pompeii?

While numerous temples have been excavated in Pompeii, temples in Herculaneum are yet to be excavated.

What were the two primary structural parts of a Roman temple mentioned in the notes?

The cella (chamber) and the altar (which contains the statue or statues of the deities).

Which three gods made up the Capitoline Triad, and when were games held in their honour?

Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva; games were held in their honour every September.

Why were people in Pompeii and Herculaneum attracted to foreign cults such as the Cult of Isis?

Roman religious practices tended to be impersonal and oppressive; therefore, individuals seeking more emotional involvement were drawn to foreign cults.

What did Isis and her husband Osiris promise to worshippers in the Cult of Isis?

Isis promised salvation from suffering, while Osiris offered resurrection and guidance of the soul.

What were the two main rituals associated with the Cult of Isis?

Navigation of Isis (priestesses, priests, and worshippers carried a small boat to pray for the protection of sailors) and Ision (commemorating the discovery of Osiris' body, symbolising rebirth).

How did the Roman historian Livy characterize the spread of the Cult of Bacchus?

Livy noted that the Cult of Bacchus spread "like a contagious disease".

What groups were notably underrepresented in the tombs of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

There is a lack of representation of children and slaves.

How did elite tombs present potential historical bias, and what example is given?

Elites liked to present their rank, works, and achievements on their tombs; for example, U. Scaurus depicted scenes of his gladiatorial games on his tomb.

From where did the Greek (Hellenic) and Egyptian (Hellenistic) influences in Pompeii and Herculaneum originate?

Greek influences arose directly from Greek colonies settled in Southern Italy, while Egyptian influences came from Rome's conquest and trade with Egypt.

What are two specific examples of Egyptian art found in Pompeii?

A water feature in the estate of Julia Felix representing a branch of the Nile, and a threshold mosaic in the House of the Faun depicting crocodiles and ibis.

What specific residences represent the four housing styles in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Domus: House of Menander; Atrium-peristyle house: House of the Vettii; Insulae: House of Trellis; Villas: Villa of the Mysteries.

What were insulae, and how were they constructed?

Multi-storeyed apartments cheaply built of wood and plaster above shops, workshops, or bakeries, associated with the lower and working classes.

What was the Odeion, and what activities was it suitable for?

The Odeion was a roofed theatre suitable for poetry, concerts, and activities where acoustics were important.

How was seating organized in the theatres of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Seating was organised by social structure, where lower seating was reserved for the elite and upper seating was reserved for lower classes.

What facilities and sports were included in the palaestra?

It was a sports ground that included a swimming pool, with sports such as wrestling, javelin, and discus.

What epigraphic evidence reveals the results of gladiatorial combats?

Inscriptions of results, such as the example: "Auctus… has won 80 times."

Where was gambling commonly played, and what graffiti evidence documents this activity?

Gambling was played in front of thermopolia (food shops); graffiti reads: "Set out the wine and dice; to hell with him who comes for the …".

How did dining patterns differ between social classes in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

The lower and working classes preferred to eat "on the go" at thermopolia and food stalls, while wealthy elites hosted elaborate dinner parties in their triclinium.

What were the three courses of a Roman meal according to the cookbook by Apicius?

1. Gustatio (appetisers: eggs, vegetables, sausages, wine); 2. Mensae Primae (main course: fish, poultry, meat roasts, wine); 3. Mensae Secundae (dessert: fruit, nuts, cheeses, cakes, copious wine).

What did Dr Estelle Lazer discover from examining over 300 skeletons in Pompeii?

The individuals were well nourished, although their teeth showed decay caused by grindstones in flour.

What proportion of the population was infected with malaria fever from contaminated milk products?

$1 \text{ in } 5$ were infected with malaria fever caused by eating contaminated milk products.

What were the four public baths in Pompeii and the two public baths in Herculaneum?

Pompeii: Stabian, Forum, Central, and Sarno baths; Herculaneum: Suburban bath and Forum bath.

What were the four standard rooms comprising the layout of Roman baths?

Tepadarium (warm baths), Caldarium (hot baths), Frigidarium (cold baths), and Apodyterium (changing rooms).

What equipment did slaves carry for elites at the baths, and what game was played there?

Slaves carried their masters' oil and strigil for cleaning and massage; men played bladder-ball (using inflated animal bladders).

How did clothing distinguish marital status among Roman women?

Women wore a tunica (a sleeveless dress secured by a belt), while married women wore a stola on top of the basic tunica.

What was the castellum aquae, and how did water travel from it?

It was a large reservoir and distribution building located at a high point in the town; water travelled from it through lead pipes to public fountains, baths, latrines, and wealthy homes.

Why did Pompeii require street stepping stones, whereas Herculaneum did not?

In Pompeii, sewage and rubbish overflowed onto the streets, making stepping stones necessary; Herculaneum was cleaner because an enforced sewage system was present.

What were the composition, membership size, and age requirement of the Town Council (Ordo Decurionum)?

It was composed of around 80–100 wealthy and influential men called Decuriones, with a minimum age requirement of 25.

What were the primary responsibilities and election cycle of the Duoviri?

The Duoviri were two highest-ranking magistrates elected annually in July for a one-year term to lead the town council, ensure law enforcement, judge legal cases, and conduct the census every five years.

What were the duties of the Aediles, and why were they required to be wealthy?

The two Aediles looked after public buildings, roads, sewage, markets, public order, and public entertainment; they had to be wealthy because they funded some of these events themselves.

What was the Comitium, and what role did it serve?

The Comitium was the Assembly of Citizens composed of free male citizens who met once a year solely to elect magistrates and public priests.

What physical evidence reveals how municipal elections were advertised in Pompeii?

Over 1,500 election notices painted as graffiti (typically in red, sometimes black) displaying the candidate's name, the desired position, and occasionally supporters' names.