THE OTHER OTHER. STUDY GUIDE

Enlightenment Thought

Political philosophy emphasizing natural rights, social contracts, and consent of the governed as the basis of legitimate government.

Natural Rights

Rights all people are born with, such as life, liberty, and property, that governments must protect.

Social Contract

An agreement where people give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection of rights and order.

Consent of the Governed

The idea that a government’s power comes from the approval of the people.

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher who believed humans are naturally chaotic and need a strong, absolute government for stability.

Leviathan

Hobbes’s work arguing for absolute authority to prevent disorder in society.

John Locke

Philosopher who argued people have natural rights and governments must have consent to rule.

Second Treatise of Civil Government

Locke’s work promoting limited government and protection of natural rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who emphasized popular sovereignty and the general will of the people.

The Social Contract (Rousseau)

Work describing mutual obligations between government and citizens.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that ultimate government authority belongs to the people.

Baron de Montesquieu

Philosopher who supported separation of powers to prevent tyranny.

Spirit of the Laws

Montesquieu’s work arguing for divided government powers.

Separation of Powers

Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Republicanism

System where citizens elect representatives to govern in the public interest.

Declaration of Independence

Document justifying separation from Britain based on natural rights and popular sovereignty.

Classic Argument

A persuasive strategy aiming to convince others of a viewpoint or action.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government with strong state power and weak federal authority.

Weak Federal Government (AOC)

A national government lacking power to tax, regulate commerce, or raise an army.

Constitution

Established a stronger federal government with checks and balances and shared power.

Checks and Balances

System where each government branch can limit the others.

Representative Republic

A system where citizens elect officials to represent their interests.

Representative Democracy

A system where elected officials make decisions on behalf of citizens.

Participatory Democracy

Direct involvement of citizens in policy decisions.

Pluralist Democracy

A system where many interest groups compete to influence policy.

Elite Democracy

A system where political power is concentrated among wealthy or educated elites.

Marxist View of Democracy

Perspective that government is controlled by wealthy capitalists.

Creedal Passion

Belief that moral issues motivate political action more than economic concerns.

Bureaucratic View

Idea that unelected bureaucrats have major influence over policy.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution advocating for a strong national government.

Federalist Papers

Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution.

Publius

Pseudonym used by authors of the Federalist Papers.

Federalist No. 10

Essay arguing a large republic limits the dangers of factionalism.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared strong central power.

Brutus

Anti-Federalist essays criticizing the Constitution.

Brutus No. 1

Essay warning the Constitution would weaken state power and individual liberties.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments protecting individual freedoms.

Federalist View on Rights

Belief that rights were inherently protected by the Constitution.

Anti-Federalist View on Rights

Belief that rights must be explicitly listed to be protected.

Unicameral Legislature

Single-chamber legislature used under the Articles.

Shays’ Rebellion

Farmer revolt exposing weaknesses of the Articles.

Constitutional Convention

Meeting where the Constitution was drafted.

Virginia Plan

Proposal favoring large states with representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposal favoring small states with equal representation.

Great Compromise

Created bicameral legislature combining both plans.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as three-fifths for representation.

Electoral College

System where electors choose the president.

Commerce Compromise

Allowed regulation of interstate commerce and tariffs on imports.

Article I

Defines powers of Congress.

Article II

Defines powers of the president.

Article III

Defines powers of the judiciary.

Article IV

Regulates state relations.

Article V

Outlines amendment process.

Article VI

Establishes supremacy of federal law.

Article VII

Describes ratification process.

Legislative Branch

Creates laws and controls government funding.

Executive Branch

Enforces laws and directs foreign policy.

Judicial Branch

Interprets laws and ensures constitutionality.

Separation of Powers

Prevent concentration of power.

Federalist No. 51

Argues separation of powers prevents tyranny.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others’ powers.

Impeachment

Process of charging officials with misconduct.

Federalism

Division of power between national and state governments.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law overrides state law.

Tenth Amendment

Reserves undelegated powers to the states.

Exclusive Powers

Powers held only by the federal government.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by federal and state governments.

Police Powers

State authority over safety, health, and morals.

Block Grants

Federal grants with broad state discretion.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants with strict guidelines.

Mandates

Federal requirements imposed on states.

Devolution

Return of power to states.

Commerce Clause

Allows Congress to regulate interstate commerce.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows implied federal powers.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Expanded federal power through implied powers.

Dual Federalism

State and federal governments operate in own spheres.

U.S. v. Lopez

Limited Congress’s commerce power.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Federal agency enforcing environmental laws.

Clean Air Act

Regulates air pollution.

Kyoto Protocol

International climate change agreement.

Paris Agreement

Global treaty targeting climate change.

Controlled Substances Act

Federal law criminalizing marijuana.

Gonzales v. Raich

Federal drug laws override state legalization.

Article I

Outlines the bicameral legislature; creates the House and Senate; laws must pass both chambers with a simple majority; each chamber has distinct roles.

Bicameral Legislature

A two-house legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Senator

Member of the Senate serving 6-year terms, representing an entire state, with greater constitutional responsibilities.

Senate Direct Election

Since the 17th Amendment, senators are elected directly by voters rather than state legislatures.

Senate Staggered Terms

System where one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years to preserve stability.

Representative

Member of the House serving 2-year terms and representing smaller districts closely tied to voters.

House Qualifications

Must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state elected from.

Senate Qualifications

Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for 9 years, and a resident of the represented state.

House Unique Powers

Initiates revenue bills, impeaches federal officials, and breaks Electoral College ties for president.

Senate Unique Powers

Provides advice and consent on treaties and appointments and conducts impeachment trials.

House Membership

435 members serving 2-year terms with no term limits.

Senate Membership

100 members serving 6-year terms with no term limits.

House Structure

Highly centralized with strict rules, limited debate, and strong leadership by the Speaker.

Senate Structure

Less centralized with extended debate, filibusters, and weaker leadership authority.

Reapportionment Act of 1929

Requires House seats to be redistributed after each census based on population.

Caucus

A group of like-minded lawmakers who organize to set agendas and select leaders.

Enumerated Powers

Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8.