PSYCH100: unit 3

consciousness

awareness of self and environment

self awareness

the special understanding of the self as distinct from other stimuli

sleep

a normal state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness of external stimuli

waking

a normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli

circadian rhythm

a natural internal 24 hour biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, and hormone levels

beta wave

A waveform of 15 to 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates alert 

• Definition: Fast waves seen when you are wide awake, alert, and focused on tasks.

• Sleep Stage: Found during REM sleep when the brain looks active like being awake

alpha wave

A waveform of 9 to 12 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates relaxed waking.

• Definition: Medium-speed waves that appear when you feel calm, relaxed, and close your eyes.

• Sleep Stage: Seen at the very start of Stage 1 NREM sleep as you drift down.

gamma wave

A waveform of more than 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that indicates attention to sensory input.

• Definition: High-speed waves for top mental focus, problem-solving, and peak insight.

• Sleep Stage: Active during REM sleep alongside mixed signals, but rare in deep rest.

delta wave

A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates deep non–rapid eye movement sleep

• Definition: Slowest and deepest waves tied to body healing and cell recovery.

• Sleep Stage: Dominates Stage 3 NREM sleep (slow-wave deep sleep)

theta wave

 A waveform of 4 to 7 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that is characteristic of lighter stages of non–rapid eye movement sleep.

• Definition: Slow waves linked to light sleep, deep daydreams, and early memory work.

• Sleep Stage: Dominates Stage 1 NREM sleep and early Stage 2 NREM sleep

REM sleep

• Brain Activity: High-frequency, desynchronized waves resembling wakefulness.

• Physical Signs: Rapid darting of the eyes under lids and temporary skeletal muscle paralysis (atonia).

• Psychological Function: Primary stage for vivid dreaming, emotional processing, and memory consolidation.

NREM sleep

a quiet and restful phase of sleep divided into three distinct stages (N1, N2, and N3) that account for roughly 75% to 80% of total adult sleep time

dreaming

a mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery

lucid dreaming

a conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream

sleep terror

It features sudden screaming, physical thrashing, and complete amnesia of the event the next morning.

• Sleep Stage: Originates during slow-wave non-REM (NREM) sleep, usually within the first few hours of the night.

• Physical Signs: Rapid heart rate, heavy sweating, flushed skin, and dilated pupils.

• Consciousness: The individual appears awake with eyes open but remains deeply asleep, confused, and immune to external comforting.

• Memory Recall: Little to no recollection of a scary dream or the event itself. [1, 2, 3, 4]

insomnia

a sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep

narcolepsy

excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden sleep attacks, and immediate entry into REM sleep

• Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS): Overwhelming daily drowsiness and sudden sleep attacks.

• Cataplexy: Sudden, brief muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions like laughter.

• Sleep paralysis: Temporary inability to move or speak when falling asleep or waking up.

• Hallucinations: Vivid, dream-like sights or sounds during sleep transitions. [1, 2, 3]

sleep apnea

a physiological sleep disorder characterized by obstructive, central, or complex breathing pauses

sudden infant death syndrome

a sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep

restless legs syndrome

a disorder characterized by the involuntary movement of an extremity, usually one leg

coma

• Status: Alive, in a profound state of deep unconsciousness.

• Function: Brain activity is present, but the person cannot be awakened.

• Signs: Eyes remain closed, does not respond to pain or commands, and usually lasts a few days or weeks before recovery, death, or transition to another state.

vegetative state

• Status: Alive, having emerged from unconsciousness without recovering awareness.

• Function: Higher brain (cortex) function is lost, but the brainstem works to regulate basic functions.

• Signs: Eyes may open, and the person shows sleep-wake cycles and involuntary grimaces or sounds, but lacks thought or purposeful movement.

brain death

• Status: Legally and medically dead; no recovery is possible.

• Function: Complete and permanent loss of all brain function, including the brainstem.

• Signs: Cannot breathe independently, has no reflexes, and requires artificial life support to keep organs functioning.

seizure

a sudden, abnormal burst of electrical activity in the brain that temporarily alters behavior, movement, feelings, or awareness

psychoactive drug

any drug with the capability of altering a person’s state of consciousness

stimulant

any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system

hallucinogen

a drug that stimulates the experience of false perceptions

opioids

a class of drugs that bind to specific receptors in the brain and body to block pain, slow down the nervous system, and produce strong feelings of pleasure (euphoria)

acts on Endogenous endorphins

hypnosis

a state of consciousness involving focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion

LSD

acts on serotonin

marijuana

acts on endogenous cannabinoids

caffeine

acts on adenosine

nicotine

acts on Acetylcholine

reflex

an inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli.

associative learning

a psychological process where a person or animal connects two events, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Through this process, the brain learns to use one event or stimulus to predict another, which shapes future habits and behaviors

classical conditioning

a type of learning where an automatic, involuntary response is paired with a specific neutral stimulus. The key components of this process include the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

operant conditioning

a type of learning where voluntary behavior is shaped by its consequences, using reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease the likelihood of a specific action

nonassociative learning

a basic type of learning where a person or animal changes how they react to a single, repeated stimulus without any rewards, punishments, or the pairing of multiple stimuli. Its two primary forms are habituation and sensitization.

habituation

process of growing accustomed to a repeated stimulus, which leads to a diminished behavioral response over time

sensitization

a type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to an intense or noxious stimulus leads to a progressive increase in behavioral or physiological responsiveness

observational learning

learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism; also known as social learning or modeling.

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral signal that, through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, grows to trigger a learned, conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

an event or thing that naturally, automatically, and without any prior learning triggers a reflexive reaction

conditioned response

a learned reaction to a previously neutral cue, formed through classical conditioning and association and repetition

unconditioned response

an automatic, natural, and unlearned reaction that occurs immediately when you experience an unconditioned stimulus

acquisiton

the development of a learned response.

extinction

The reduction of a learned response.

• In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS).

• In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior.

spontaneous recovery

During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest.

inhibition

a feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

generalization

the tendency to respond to new, similar stimuli in the same way as an original learned cue.

• The core difference lies in whether the generalized reaction involves an involuntary reflex (classical) or a voluntary action (operant)

discrimination

the ability to tell different signals apart and respond only to a specific one. The two key types are:

• classical discrimination (Learning to show an automatic reflex only to the exact conditioned signal, and not to other similar signs)

• operant discrimination (Learning to perform a voluntary action only when a specific cue (called a discriminative stimulus) is present to signal a reward or punishment)

higher-order conditioning

occurs when a conditioned stimulus acts as an unconditioned stimulus to form a new association

latent learning

a type of learning that happens without any clear reward or punishment

taste aversion

a learned psychological response where an individual develops a strong, lasting dislike and avoidance of a specific food after eating it and later becoming sick

aversion therapy

An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS.

systematic desensitization

A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.

positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasant reward to make a behavior happen more often.

negative reinforcement

increases a behavior by taking away an unpleasant thing

positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to stop a behavior from happening again.

negative punishment

taking away a desired stimulus to stop a behavior from happening again.

conditioned reinforcer

(also called a secondary reinforcer) is a neutral event or item that becomes rewarding after it is paired with a primary (natural) reinforcer

• example: money

punishment

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior.

partial reinforcement

The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others

fixed ratio

• Definition: A reward is given after a set number of responses.

• Behavior Pattern: Causes a high and steady rate of response, with a short pause right after getting the reward.

• Example: Getting paid $10 for every 5 boxes you pack.

variable ratio

• Definition: A reward is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Behavior Pattern: Causes a very high, steady rate of response with almost no pausing. It is very hard to stop (extinguish).

• Example: Playing a slot machine (wins happen after a random number of pulls).

fixed interval

• Definition: A reward is given for the first response after a set amount of time has passed.

• Behavior Pattern: People respond more as the time for the reward gets close, creating a slow-to-fast (scalloped) response pattern.

• Example: Getting a paycheck every Friday, no matter how much work you do during the week.

variable interval

• Definition: A reward is given for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

• Behavior Pattern: Causes a slow, steady, and even rate of response.

• Example: Checking your phone for a text message when you do not know when one will arrive.

partial reinforcement extinction effect

The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement.

method of successive approximations

A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as shaping.

token economy

a behavior modification system based on operant conditioning, consisting of target behaviors, tokens, and backup rewards. Individuals earn tokens (like points, stickers, or chips) for showing good actions and trade them later for prizes or privileges.