PLS 121 Readings

First branch

Congress (established by Article I of the Constitution)

Congress power

One of the world’s most powerful representative bodies; has major independent powers and does not rubber-stamp the president

Separation of powers

Legislative, executive, and judicial powers are divided among different branches

Representation

Members of Congress speak for the people who elected them

Constituency

The people who live in a member’s district or state

Three things members balance

Individual constituents, organized interest groups, and the district/state as a whole

Delegate

A representative who votes exactly the way constituents want

Trustee

A representative who votes according to his or her own best judgment

Agency representation

Representatives act as agents of the people and can be held accountable at the next election

Congressional demographics

House members younger than Senators; lawyers and business people common; most have college degrees; women and minorities under-represented

Bicameral

A legislature with two chambers (House and Senate)

House age and citizenship

25 years old and 7 years a citizen

Senate age and citizenship

30 years old and 9 years a citizen

House term length

2 years

Senate term length

6 years (staggered)

Senators per state

2

House seats determined by

State population

House constituency size

About 700,000 people

Money bills start in

The House of Representatives

More responsive chamber

The House (shorter terms and smaller districts)

More deliberative chamber

The Senate

Homogeneous districts

Districts where people share similar views and backgrounds

Partisan

Strongly tied to one political party

Incumbent

The person who currently holds the office

Incumbency advantage

The many benefits that make it easier for current officeholders to win re-election

Incumbent advantages

Name recognition, fundraising, staff, franking privilege, casework experience, ability to bring home federal money

Franking privilege

The right of members of Congress to send mail to constituents free of charge

Casework

Personal help that members give to individual constituents

Patronage

Providing jobs, contracts, or favors

Pork-barrel legislation

Bills that fund local projects to benefit a member’s district

House turnover trend

Has generally declined over time

Sophomore surge

The big jump in vote share many members get the second time they run

Typical re-election rates

Usually 80–95% for both House and Senate

Apportionment

Deciding how many House seats each state gets (every 10 years after the census)

Redistricting

Redrawing the boundaries of congressional districts

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to give one political party an advantage

Safe seats

Districts almost certain to elect a candidate from one particular party

Regional seat shift 1960–2020

Sun Belt gained seats; Northeast and Midwest lost seats

Collective-action problem

When individuals have incentives that work against the group’s goals

Coalition

A temporary alliance of members or parties to pass legislation

Three deep problems of Congress

Matching influence and interest, information problems, and compliance

Institutional arrangements

The rules, committees, and leadership structures that organize Congress

Party caucus / conference

A closed meeting of party members to choose leaders and set strategy

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer and most powerful leader in the House

Majority Leader

The elected leader of the majority party (most powerful in the Senate)

Minority Leader

The elected leader of the minority party

Whips

Count votes and enforce party discipline

Party polarization

The growing ideological gap between Democrats and Republicans

Committee system

The network of permanent and temporary committees that do most of the detailed work of Congress

Division of labor

Splitting up work so different groups specialize in different topics

Standing committee

A permanent committee that continues from one Congress to the next with fixed jurisdiction

Jurisdiction (committees)

The specific set of policy topics a committee is responsible for

Specialization

Members developing deep knowledge in the areas their committee covers

Federalist 70 author and date

Alexander Hamilton, March 18, 1788

Federalist 70 main argument

The United States needs a strong, energetic, unitary (one-person) Executive

Four ingredients of energetic Executive

Unity, Duration, Adequate support, Competent powers

Why Hamilton wants unity

One person can act with decision, activity, secrecy, and speed

Problems of multiple executives

Disagreement, competition, hostility, delay, weakened government

Disagreement in legislature vs executive

Useful in legislature (debate); harmful in executive

Why one Executive creates accountability

The public knows exactly who to blame or reward

Hamilton’s goal

Strong Executive + Accountability = Good Republican Government

Unitary decider

The idea that the president is a single person who makes final decisions

Presidential government

The modern system in which the president is the central and most powerful figure

Three types of presidential power

Expressed, Delegated, and Inherent

Expressed powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution (Article II)

Delegated powers

Powers Congress gives to the president by law

Inherent powers

Powers presidents claim that are not written in the Constitution

Key expressed powers

Commander in Chief, treaties, appointments, pardons/reprieves, “take Care” clause

Commander in Chief

The president’s role as head of the military

Reprieve

Postponement of a punishment

Pardon

Forgiveness of a crime and cancellation of the penalty

Amnesty

A pardon given to a group of people

Executive privilege

The claim that the president can keep certain communications secret from Congress and the courts

Executive agreement

An agreement with another country that does not require Senate approval

Veto

The president’s power to reject a bill passed by Congress

Pocket veto

If the president does nothing and Congress adjourns within 10 days, the bill dies

Override a veto

Two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate

War Powers Resolution (1973)

Requires the president to notify Congress and withdraw troops within 60 days unless approved

Legislative initiative

The president’s ability to set the policy agenda and propose bills

Executive order

A directive issued by the president that has the force of law

Signing statement

A written statement by the president explaining how he intends to interpret or enforce a bill

Going public

When a president appeals directly to the American people to pressure Congress

Divided government

When the president’s party does not control one or both houses of Congress

Cabinet

The heads of the major executive departments

White House Staff

The president’s closest personal advisers (loyal only to the president)

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Permanent agencies that help the president manage the government (created 1939)

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Prepares the budget and reviews regulations (most important EOP agency)

National Security Council (NSC)

The president’s main advisory body for foreign policy and national security

Administrative state

The large modern bureaucracy that implements most federal policy

Regulatory review

The process by which the White House reviews and can change agency regulations

Three myths about presidential power

Presidents are always superior in emergencies; more public-spirited than Congress; the presidency is more democratic

Three goals of U.S. foreign policy

Security, Economic prosperity, Humanitarian aims

Isolationism

The desire to stay out of foreign conflicts and focus on domestic affairs

Non-state actors

Groups that are not countries (e.g., terrorist organizations)

Containment

Policy of preventing an enemy from expanding its power

Deterrence

Building military strength so enemies are afraid to attack

Appeasement

Giving in to an aggressor’s demands to avoid war

Preemption / Preventive war

Striking first to stop a possible future attack

Cold War

Long period of tension between the U.S. and Soviet Union (roughly 1945–1991)

Most-favored-nation status

Giving a country the lowest tariffs and best trade terms the U.S. offers anyone