Intimate relationships exam 2

What is social cognition?

How we think about, understand, and interpret other people and social situations.

Why is social cognition important?

It influences how we judge, understand, and interact with others.

What is confirmation bias?

Seeking or focusing on information that supports our existing beliefs.

How does confirmation bias affect relationships?

We notice behaviors that confirm our opinions of a partner and overlook contradictory evidence.

What is self-serving bias?

Taking credit for our successes while blaming failures on outside circumstances.

What is an example of self-serving bias?

You credit your intelligence for an A but blame the teacher for a failing grade.

What is reconstructive memory?

Remembering past events based partly on current feelings and beliefs rather than exactly as they happened.

What is a positive illusion?

Viewing your partner and relationship in an overly positive light.

How can positive illusions benefit relationships?

They help partners view each other favorably and can increase satisfaction.

What are attributions?

Explanations we create for why events or behaviors happen.

What is an internal attribution?

Explaining behavior through personality, ability, effort, or other personal characteristics.

What is an external attribution?

Explaining behavior through the circumstances or situation.

What is a stable attribution?

Believing a cause is lasting or unlikely to change.

What is an unstable attribution?

Believing a cause is temporary or likely to change.

What is a controllable attribution?

Believing someone can control or manage the cause of a behavior.

What is an uncontrollable attribution?

Believing the cause is beyond someone's control.

What is an actor-observer effect?

Explaining our own behavior more through situations while attributing others' behavior more to their characteristics.

What is the difference between actor-observer effects and self-serving bias?

Actor-observer compares explanations of our actions versus others' actions; self-serving bias compares explanations of successes versus failures.

What are relationship-enhancing attributions?

Explaining a partner's positive behavior through internal, stable causes and negative behavior through external, temporary causes.

What are distress-maintaining attributions?

Explaining negative partner behavior through internal, stable causes and positive behavior through external, temporary causes.

What are growth beliefs?

Believing relationships develop through effort, communication, and working through difficulties.

What are destiny beliefs?

Believing partners are either meant for each other or are not.

Which beliefs are generally more beneficial to relationships?

Growth beliefs, because they encourage partners to resolve problems rather than give up.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

An expectation that influences behavior in ways that make the expectation come true.

What is impression management?

Trying to influence how other people perceive us.

What is ingratiation?

Presenting yourself favorably to gain someone else's approval.

What is self-promotion?

Highlighting your skills, achievements, and accomplishments.

What is intimidation?

Acting threatening or powerful to make others comply.

What is supplication?

Acting helpless or incapable to receive assistance or avoid obligations.

Who is generally better at predicting relationship outcomes?

Close outsiders, such as friends and family.

Why can outsiders predict relationship outcomes better?

They may notice problems that romantic partners overlook because of emotional bias.

What is social network forecasting?

Using friends' and family members' observations to predict a relationship's future.

Communication

What is an interpersonal gap?

The difference between what a sender intends and how a receiver interprets a message.

What is an example of an interpersonal gap?

Someone intends a joke to be funny, but their partner interprets it as criticism.

What information does nonverbal communication provide?

Information about emotions and intentions, regulation of interactions, and clues about the nature of a relationship.

What are examples of nonverbal communication?

Facial expressions, body movements, touch, and eye contact.

What is nonverbal sensitivity?

The ability to accurately recognize and understand nonverbal cues.

What contributes to nonverbal sensitivity?

Empathy, attention to others, and experience with social interactions.

What is the visual dominance ratio?

The relationship between how much someone looks at others while speaking versus listening.

How do powerful people tend to use eye contact?

They tend to gaze more while speaking and less while listening.

How do powerful people tend to use body movement?

They often use open postures, take up more space, and move more freely.

What is self-disclosure?

Revealing personal information about yourself to another person.

What does social penetration theory propose?

Relationships become closer through increasing self-disclosure.

What is breadth in self-disclosure?

The variety or number of topics discussed.

What is depth in self-disclosure?

How personal or intimate the information shared is.

What is reciprocity in self-disclosure?

Matching another person's level or depth of disclosure.

What is responsiveness in communication?

Showing that you understand, validate, and care about what another person shares.

How does disclosure change as relationships develop?

Breadth and depth generally increase; early reciprocity becomes less important than genuine responsiveness in closer relationships.

What are taboo topics?

Sensitive subjects people avoid because they may create discomfort or conflict.

How do taboo topics increase relational uncertainty?

Avoiding important subjects may leave partners unsure about each other's feelings or expectations.

What are secret tests?

Indirect ways of learning about a partner's feelings or commitment without asking directly.

What is a triangle test?

Observing how a partner behaves around an attractive third person.

What is an endurance test?

Observing how a partner responds to a challenge or difficulty in the relationship.

What is a separation test?

Observing a partner's response when reunited after spending time apart.

What is an I-statement?

A statement that expresses your feelings without attacking or blaming someone else.

Give an example of an I-statement.

I feel ignored when I'm speaking and don't get a response.

What is kitchen-sinking?

Bringing up multiple complaints or past problems during one argument.

What is off-beam responding?

Responding to something other than the actual point being communicated.

What is yes-butting?

Appearing to agree before immediately dismissing the other person's point with 'but.'

What is cross-complaining?

Answering someone's complaint by making a different complaint against them.

What is mind-reading?

Assuming you know another person's thoughts or feelings without checking.

What is interrupting?

Speaking before another person has finished expressing their thoughts.

What are the Four Horsemen?

Criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling.

What is criticism?

Attacking someone's personality or character rather than addressing a specific behavior.

What is contempt?

Communicating disrespect, disgust, mockery, or superiority toward a partner.

What is defensiveness?

Avoiding responsibility by making excuses or shifting blame.

What is stonewalling?

Withdrawing, shutting down, or refusing to engage during conflict.

Which Horseman is the strongest predictor of divorce?

Contempt, because it conveys disrespect and superiority and undermines emotional connection.

What is active listening?

Giving full attention, trying to understand, and responding thoughtfully without interrupting.

What is perception checking?

Asking someone to clarify their feelings or intentions rather than making assumptions.

How does perception checking prevent miscommunication?

It helps identify misunderstandings before they cause conflict.

What strategies support healthy communication?

Active listening, I-statements, clarification, empathy, nonverbal awareness, and direct communication.

Interdependence

What is social exchange theory?

The idea that people evaluate relationships by comparing their rewards and costs.

How are relationship outcomes calculated?

Rewards minus costs.

What are rewards?

Positive relationship experiences such as love, happiness, support, and companionship.

What are costs?

Negative relationship experiences such as stress, arguments, and sacrifices.

What are investments?

Resources put into a relationship that would be lost or diminished if it ended, such as time, effort, and shared experiences.

What is comparison level (CL)?

Our expectations about what we should receive from a relationship.

What influences comparison level?

Past relationships, family experiences, media, and friendships.

What does comparison level determine?

Relationship satisfaction.

What is comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)?

The outcomes we believe we could obtain from another relationship or from being single.

What influences CLalt?

Perceived mate value, the dating market, and potential alternative partners.

What does CLalt determine?

Dependence on the current relationship.

When is satisfaction high?

When relationship outcomes exceed comparison level (CL).

When is dependence high?

When current relationship outcomes are better than the available alternatives (CLalt).

Can someone be unhappy but dependent on a relationship?

Yes. Their relationship may not meet expectations, but they may believe alternatives are even worse.

What is commitment?

The intention and desire to maintain a relationship over time.

What is personal commitment?

Staying because you want to and enjoy the relationship.

What is moral commitment?

Staying because you feel you should, based on personal values or obligations.

What is structural commitment?

Staying because leaving would be difficult or costly.

What is equity theory?

The idea that people prefer relationships in which benefits are fair relative to each partner's contributions.

What is underbenefiting?

Contributing proportionally more to a relationship than you receive.

What is overbenefiting?

Receiving proportionally more from a relationship than you contribute.

What can happen when relationships lack equity?

Dissatisfaction, stress, guilt, resentment, and conflict.

What is the 5:1 relationship ratio?

About five positive interactions for every negative interaction during conflict in stable, healthy relationships.

What is approach motivation?

Taking actions to gain rewards and positive relationship experiences.