SS Midterm

Karl Marx

• 1818-1883 philosopher and economist who developed the theory of Marxism, critiquing capitalism as inherently exploitative and advocating for a classless, communist society. Wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848), which called upon the proletariat to unite, and Das Kapital, a detailed critique of political economy.

Emile Durkheim

• 1858-1917 French sociologist who established sociology as an academic discipline; known for studying social integration, solidarity (mechanical and organic), and anomie (a state of normlessness or societal breakdown). Wrote The Division of Labor in Society (1893) and Suicide (1897).

Max Weber

• 1864-1920 German sociologist known for his work on bureaucracy, types of authority (traditional, charismatic, legal-rational), and the “Protestant work ethic” as a driver of capitalism. Also wrote Economy and Society and Politics as a Vocation.

W.E.B. DuBois

• 1868-1963 African American sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist; co-founder of the NAACP and author of The Souls of Black Folk (1903), which introduced the concept of "double consciousness."

Industrial Revolution

• A period of major industrialization (c. 1760-1914) marked by the growth of factories, rapid urbanization, and mechanized production, leading to profound societal and economic transformations.

1st Industrial Revolution

(c. 1760–1870) Focused on textiles, coal, steam power, and iron production, leading to the factory system.

2nd Industrial Revolution

(1870-1914) Focused on steel, oil, electricity, and mass production; introduced the assembly line.

Enclosure

The process of consolidating common agricultural lands into private holdings in England.

Classical Liberalism

• Political ideology emphasizing individual freedoms, limited government intervention, and natural rights (life, liberty, property). Associated with thinkers like John Locke, Adam Smith, and Thomas Jefferson. Its principles are reflected in documents like the American Declaration of Independence.

Economic Liberalism

Belief in free markets and minimal government intervention in economic affairs.

Political Liberalism

Focuses on individual rights, civil liberties, and democracy.

Utilitarianism

Ethical theory arguing that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

State

An organized political community with a defined territory and effective government.

Regime

The fundamental rules and institutions governing power in a state.

Government

The specific group of people in power at a particular time responsible for governing.

Race/Racial Group

Socially constructed categories based on perceived physical traits.

Ethnicity/Ethnic Group

Shared cultural traits that differentiate one group from another.

Nationality/Nation

A group of people sharing a common identity, culture, or language.

Nationalism

Strong identification with one’s nation, placing its interests above others.

Civic/Liberal Nationalism

Nationalism based on shared values and political ideals rather than descent.

Ethnic/Romantic Nationalism

Nationalism based on shared ethnicity and culture, often leading to self-determination.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• French military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution; became Emperor of the French (1804–1815), spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideals across Europe. Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Self-determination

The right of a people to determine their own political status.

Nation-State

A sovereign state whose citizens share a common identity.

Otto Von Bismarck

• 19th-century Prussian statesman who, as Chancellor, unified Germany through a series of wars based on his policy of “realpolitik” (practical rather than ideological politics). Orchestrated wars against Denmark, Austria, and France to create a united German Empire in 1871. Convened the Berlin Conference to assert Germany's new global standing.

Berlin Conference

1884-85 meeting where European powers formalized the colonization of Africa.

Liberia

• African nation founded by freed American slaves in 1822 with support from the American Colonization Society; declared independence in 1847, serving as a symbol of self-governance for freed slaves.

White Man’s Burden

• An imperialist concept, popularized by Rudyard Kipling's 1899 poem, asserting that Europeans had a moral duty to civilize, Christianize, and commercialize “lesser” peoples around the world, justifying colonial expansion.

Slave Codes

A set of laws enacted predominantly in the Southern United States from the 17th to 19th centuries that defined the status of slaves as property, severely restricted their rights, and codified the rights and powers of masters. Nine of the original 13 states formally adopted

US Civil War

1861-1865 conflict over slavery and states' rights, leading to the abolition of slavery.

Andrew Jackson

• 7th U.S. President (1829–1837); known for his populist appeal, expansion of presidential power, and the controversial Indian Removal Act, which led to the forced displacement of Native American tribes.

Trail of Tears

• The brutal forced relocation of approximately 100,000 Native Americans from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) during the 1830s, notably the Cherokee Nation, resulting in thousands of deaths.

Underground Railroad

• A clandestine network of safe houses and routes spanning the southern United States to Canada, organized by abolitionists and freed slaves, which helped enslaved African Americans escape to freedom during the 19th century.

William H. Seward

• U.S. Secretary of State under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson; a strong anti-slavery advocate prior to the Civil War, and known for negotiating the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 ("Seward's Folly").

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1857 Supreme Court case ruling that African Americans could not be citizens and that the federal government can’t ban slavery.

Bleeding Kansas

Violent confrontations over slavery in the Kansas Territory (1854-1859).

Abraham Lincoln

• 16th U.S. President (1861–1865) who led the country during the Civil War, preserving the Union and issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. Assassinated shortly after the war's end.

Frederick Douglass

Former slave and prominent abolitionist leader advocating for civil rights.

Emancipation Proclamation

1863 declaration freeing enslaved persons in Confederate-held states.

Ulysses S. Grant

• Union general during the Civil War, leading the Union Army to victory. Later served as the 18th U.S. President (1869–1877), introducing radical reconstruction efforts to protect the rights of freed slaves in the South.

Reconstruction

• The period after the Civil War (1865–1877) focused on rebuilding the Confederate states, politically reintegrating them into the Union, and integrating nearly 4 million newly freed slaves into American society, though efforts faced significant challenges and ultimately failed to secure full equality.

Freedman’s Bureau

• Officially the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, established in 1865 by Congress to help formerly enslaved African Americans and poor whites in the South during Reconstruction. It provided food, housing, medical aid, schools, and legal assistance.

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 Supreme Court case upholding 'separate but equal' doctrine for racial segregation.

Reparations

The act of making amends, often discussed concerning historical injustices.

Booker T. Washington

• African American educator, author, and political leader. He advocated for vocational training and economic self-sufficiency for Black Americans, often through accommodation with segregation, believing that economic power would eventually lead to civil rights. Founded the Tuskegee Institute.

Ida B. Wells

• Influential African American journalist, activist, and early leader in the Civil Rights Movement. Known for her fearless anti-lynching campaigns and advocacy for women's suffrage. Co-founder of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People).

Affirmative Action

Policies designed to promote opportunities for historically marginalized groups.

World War I

Global war (1914-1918) due to militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.

Political Realism

Foreign policy theory prioritizing national interest and security over ideology.

Balance of Power

System in international relations preventing one country from becoming too powerful.

Tsar Nicholas II

Last Emperor of Russia, forced to abdicate during the 1917 Revolution.

Socialism

Economic system where the means of production is owned or regulated by the community.

Communism

Ideology advocating for a classless society with common ownership of production.

Marxism

Theories of Karl Marx critiquing capitalism and predicting a transition to socialism.

Leninism

Adaptation of Marxism emphasizing a revolutionary vanguard party.

Totalitarianism

Political system with absolute state control over public and private life.

Corporatism/Corporativism

Political system integrating major interest groups into the decision-making process.

Fascism

Far-right authoritarian ideology characterized by dictatorial power and suppression of opposition.

Benito Mussolini

• Italian dictator and founder of Fascism; ruled Italy as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943, establishing a totalitarian state and forming an alliance with Nazi Germany during WWII.

Adolf Hitler

• Leader of the Nazi Party and dictator of Nazi Germany (1933–1945). His totalitarian regime initiated World War II in Europe and was responsible for the systematic genocide of approximately six million Jews, known as the Holocaust.

Weapon of Mass Destruction (WMD)

Weapons causing significant harm or destruction to a large population.

The War of the Worlds

• A science fiction novel by H.G. Wells (1898) depicting an alien invasion of Earth; often seen to mirror Imperialism