Learn: animal behavior exam 1

Behavior

A non-developmental, observable response of an organism to an internal or external stimulus.

Charles Darwin

Established evolutionary continuity between humans and other animals; major influence on comparative psychology and ethology.

Evolutionary Continuity

Humans and other animals share evolutionary relationships, making animal behavior useful for understanding general behavior and cognition.

Comparative Psychology

Laboratory-based study emphasizing learned behavior, physiology, quantitative experiments, and a few model species.

Ethology

Biological study of natural animal behavior emphasizing instinct, evolution, function, field research, and many species.

George John Romanes

Founder of comparative psychology and Darwin's protégé; criticized for anecdotal and anthropomorphic explanations.

Anthropomorphism

Attributing human-like thoughts, motives, or emotions to animals without sufficient evidence.

Wilhelm Wundt

Promoted experimental and quantitative approaches to psychology.

Conway Lloyd Morgan

Pushed comparative psychology toward a more skeptical and scientific approach; developed Morgan's Canon.

Morgan's Canon

Do not explain behavior using a higher mental process if a simpler process adequately explains it.

Parsimony / Occam's Razor

Prefer the simplest adequate explanation.

Methodological Behaviorism

Scientists should focus on observable behavior because animal mental states cannot be directly observed.

Edward Thorndike

Puzzle Box; associated with operant conditioning.

John B. Watson

Philosophical behaviorism; argued that behavior rather than mental states should be the focus of psychology.

B. F. Skinner

Skinner Box; major comparative psychologist and behaviorist.

Frank Beach

Founder of Behavioral Endocrinology; studied effects of hormones on behavior.

Karl von Frisch

Studied honeybee communication, waggle dance, and animal sensory systems.

Konrad Lorenz

Known for imprinting; highly observational and relatively non-quantitative ethologist.

Niko Tinbergen

Major ethologist known for the Four Questions of behavior.

1973 Nobel Prize

Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch shared the Nobel Prize for their work on animal behavior.

Tinbergen's Four Questions

Mechanism/Causation, Development, Evolution, and Function.

Mechanism / Causation

What immediate stimuli, neural, hormonal, or physiological mechanisms cause a behavior?

Development

How does a behavior arise during an individual's lifetime through genes, development, experience, and learning?

Evolution

What is the evolutionary or phylogenetic history of a behavior?

Function

What is the current adaptive value of a behavior; how does it improve survival or reproduction?

Proximate Questions

Mechanism + Development = HOW a behavior occurs.

Ultimate Questions

Evolution + Function = WHY a behavior exists.

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Observation → hypothesis/explanation → prediction → quantitative test → attempt to falsify.

Karl Popper

Associated with falsification.

Falsification

A scientific hypothesis should make predictions that could potentially prove it wrong.

Francis Bacon

Associated with induction.

Induction

Observe nature, identify patterns, and develop general laws.

Experiment

Controlled manipulation; strongest method for establishing cause and effect.

Structured Observation

Quantitative observation that usually demonstrates correlation rather than causation.

Comparative Method

Compares species or populations to examine evolutionary history and environmental effects.

Models

Physical, mathematical, simulation, or visual tools used to make precise predictions.

Optimality Approach

Analyzes the costs and benefits of behavioral strategies.

Game Theory

Analyzes situations where the best strategy depends on what other individuals do.

Individual Selection

Traits spread because they improve the survival or reproduction of individuals.

Group Selection

Traits are proposed to spread because they benefit a group or species.

Gene Selection

Selection viewed in terms of which alleles successfully propagate.

George C. Williams

Emphasized gene-level selection.

Richard Dawkins

Popularized the selfish-gene approach.

Selfish-Gene Approach

Behavior evolves based on its effects on propagation of the genes responsible for it; genes are not literally selfish.

Belding's Ground Squirrels

Alarm calls can put callers at risk while protecting relatives; example of kin-based altruism.

Behavioral Altruism

Behavior that benefits another individual while imposing a cost or risk on the actor.

One Gene-One Character Fallacy

Incorrect idea that one gene alone completely specifies one trait.

Genetic Determination Fallacy

Incorrect idea that possessing an allele guarantees the associated phenotype.

Gene for Behavior

An allele statistically influences a behavioral trait under particular developmental and environmental conditions; it does not completely determine behavior.

Margaret Bastock

Studied Yellow mutant Drosophila; showed one gene can affect pigmentation and courtship behavior.

Pleiotropy

One gene affects multiple phenotypic traits.

Cooper & Zubek

Studied Bright and Dull rats; demonstrated gene × environment interaction.

Gene × Environment Interaction

The effect of genotype depends on environmental conditions.

William Cade

Artificially selected crickets for calling duration, demonstrating genetic variation affecting the behavior.

Artificial Selection

Selective breeding for a trait; successful selection demonstrates heritable genetic variation affecting the trait.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a trait that is due to genetic variation among individuals in a particular population and environment.

Selection Differential (S)

Mean selected breeders − mean original population.

Response to Selection (R)

Mean offspring − mean original population.

Heritability Formula

H = R / S.

Alternative Heritability Formula

H = VG / (VG + VE).

Environment & Heritability

More environmental variation → lower H; more uniform environment → higher H.

Heritability Key Point

Heritability describes variation in a population, NOT how much of an individual's trait is caused by genes.

Lewontin

High heritability within groups does not mean differences between group averages are genetically determined.

Lewontin Key Point

Within-group heritability does NOT explain between-group differences.

Forward Genetics

Start with phenotype → search for associated gene(s).

Reverse Genetics

Start with a gene → manipulate it → examine the phenotype.

Rover vs. Sitter Drosophila

Larvae differ in feeding movement; difference is associated with a single autosomal gene.

Autosomal Gene

A gene located on a non-sex chromosome.

Filiform Cricket Study

Non-jumping mutants lacked sensory hairs; showed sensory stimulation is required to maintain normal neural development/function.

Rothenbuhler

Studied hygienic behavior in honeybees and proposed a two-gene model.

Honeybee Hygienic Behavior

Two components: uncapping infected cells and removing infected brood.

Rothenbuhler Two-Gene Model

One gene proposed for uncapping and another for removing infected brood.

Testcross Phenotype Rule

Number of phenotypic forms = 2^n, where n = number of segregating genes.

2 Equal Phenotypic Classes

Suggests 1 segregating gene.

4 Equal Phenotypic Classes

Suggests 2 segregating genes.

Berthold

Studied genetic influences on migration in blackcap warblers.

Emlen Funnel

Used to measure migratory restlessness and direction.

Polygenic Inheritance

A trait influenced by multiple genes.

Intermediate F1 Phenotypes

Often suggest polygenic inheritance.

Blackcap Warbler Study

Hybrid migratory directions were often intermediate between parental populations, supporting genetic influence on migration.

Pulido et al.

Selection shifted blackcap migration onset 7.65 days later after two generations; heritability ≈ 0.72.

Bentley & Hoy

Cricket crosses produced intermediate F1 songs; song is polygenic with sex-linked and autosomal genes.

Family Studies

Examine resemblance among relatives but are confounded because families share both genes and environments.

Adoption Studies

Help separate genetic effects from shared rearing-environment effects in humans.

Cross-Fostering

Animals are raised by non-biological parents to help separate genetic and environmental effects.

Ann Hedrick

Studied heritability of calling duration in Gryllus integer using regression among relatives.

Hedrick Father-Son Heritability

H ≈ 0.75.

Hedrick Brother-Brother Heritability

H ≈ 0.72.

Coefficient of Relatedness (r)

Expected degree of genetic relatedness between individuals.

Monozygotic Twins

r = 1.0.

Parent-Offspring

r = 0.5.

Full Siblings

r = 0.5.

Dizygotic Twins

r = 0.5.

Unrelated Adoptive Relatives

r = 0.

Bouchard & McGue

1981 IQ meta-analysis; both genetic similarity and environmental similarity contribute substantially to IQ similarity/differences.

Gene Addition

Add a functioning allele and determine whether behavior changes; behavioral change provides strong causal evidence.

period (per) Gene

Drosophila gene involved in circadian behavioral rhythms.

per+

Normal 24-hour cycle.

perL

Long 29-hour cycle.

perS

Short 19-hour cycle.