AP PSYCH UNIT 2

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

gestalt

an organized whole

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surrounding

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

ability to see objects in 3D although the images are 2D that strike the retina (judge distance)

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cues

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance enabled by the brain combing retinal images

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

monocular cues

visual signals that allow a single eye to judge depth, distance, shape, and three-dimensional space

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

cognition

mental activities connected with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

metacognition

cognition about our cognition

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, people, or ideas

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

schema

a concept/framework that organizes and interprets information (understanding)

assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new info

creativity

ability to produce new ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problems solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

algorithm

a methodical, step-by-step procedure or rule that guarantees a correct solution to a problem, provided it is followed accurately

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments/solve problems. speedy but error-prone.

insight

sudden realization of a problems solution

conformation bias

tendency to search for info that supports our preconception

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, that has been successful in the past

intuition

automatic feeling/thought as contrasted wtih explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they match prototypes

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on availability in memory

belief perseverance

the persistence of ones initial conceptions even after the basis of which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct- overestimate the accuracy of out beliefs and judgements

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as in a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

identifying items previously learned. MCQ

relearning

learning something faster the 2nd/later time

encode

get info into out brain

store

retain the info

retrieve

later get info back out of brain

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of stimulus or problem simultaneously

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recovery of sensory info in the memory system

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Knowledge, skills, experience

working memory

active processing of incoming sensory info and info retrieved from long-term memory

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory info

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds info about objects’ appearance and location in space

neurogenesis

creation of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in a nerve cells firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neurotic basis for learning and memory

explicit (declarative) memories

retention of facts and experiences that we consciously know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic procesing

unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, frequency, and of familiar well known info like sound, smell, and word meaning

implicit (non declarative) memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned association independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli (no more than a few tenths of a second)

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditorily stimuli (3-4 seconds)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than achieved through mass study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply re-reading info

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words; yields better retention

mnemonics

memory aids; especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organization devices

form perception

organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

size-distance relationship

appearance based on distance (Ames room)

sematic

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic

explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memories

flashback

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially and the first items in a list after a delay

Interlearning

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics