Middle eastern history Exam #1

Haram/Mahram

• Muslims, especially in Islamic law

• Haram = forbidden; Mahram = a person whom someone cannot marry because of a permanent family relationship

• Early Islamic period → present

• Important for understanding Islamic rules about marriage, gender interactions, and religious behavior

Hijra

• Muhammad and his followers

• Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina

• 622 CE

• Mecca → Medina

• Marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the formation of the first Muslim community

Qasida

• Arab poets

• A traditional form of Arabic poetry, often a long poem praising someone or describing a journey or event

• Pre-Islamic Arabia → present

• Arabian Peninsula and wider Islamic world

• Shows the importance of poetry and oral culture in Arab society

Council of Chalcedon

• Christian bishops and church leaders

• Church council that addressed the nature of Jesus Christ

• 451 CE

• Chalcedon, near Constantinople

• Declared that Christ had two natures, divine and human, and created divisions among Christian groups

Battle of Uhud

• Muhammad and Muslims vs. Meccan Quraysh

• Major battle between Muslims and Meccans

• 625 CE

• Near Mount Uhud, outside Medina

• Demonstrated that the early Muslim community could suffer military setbacks despite its growing power

Battle of Badr

• Muhammad and Muslims vs. Quraysh

• First major military victory of the Muslims

• 624 CE

• Badr, near Medina

• Major early Muslim victory that strengthened Muhammad's leadership and the Muslim community

Battle of the Trench

• Muhammad and Muslims vs. Meccan-led coalition

• Muslims defended Medina by digging a trench around vulnerable areas

• 627 CE

• Medina

• The Muslim defensive strategy prevented the attacking coalition from capturing Medina

Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi

• Muslim ruler and military leader

• Sultan who united much of Egypt and Syria and fought the Crusaders

• 1137/38–1193 CE

• Egypt, Syria, Palestine

• Famous for defeating Crusader forces and recapturing Jerusalem in 1187

Jizya

• Non-Muslim subjects under certain Islamic governments

• A tax historically imposed on certain non-Muslim adult subjects

• Early Islamic period → various later periods

• Islamic states

• Helped establish the legal and fiscal relationship between Muslim rulers and certain non-Muslim communities

Dhimma

• Non-Muslim communities under Muslim rule

• A protected legal status traditionally granted to certain non-Muslim communities

• Early Islamic period → later Islamic states

• Islamic territories

• Provided protection and religious rights in exchange for obligations, historically including payment of jizya

Council of Clermont

• Pope Urban II and Christian church leaders

• Church council where Urban II called for a military expedition to the Holy Land

• 1095 CE

• Clermont, France

• Helped launch the First Crusade

• 
  

Battle of Ayn Jalut

• Mamluks vs. Mongols

• Major battle in which the Mamluks defeated a Mongol army

• 1260 CE

• Galilee, near modern-day Israel

• Stopped Mongol expansion into Egypt and much of the Middle East

Hajj

• Muslims

• Pilgrimage to Mecca

• One of the Five Pillars of Islam; performed annually

• Mecca and surrounding holy sites

• Muslims who are physically and financially able are required to perform it at least once

Sawm

• Muslims

• Fasting, especially during Ramadan

• One of the Five Pillars

• Muslim communities worldwide

• Teaches self-discipline, devotion, charity, and empathy for people experiencing hunger

Battle of Manzikert

• Seljuk Turks vs. Byzantine Empire

• Major Seljuk victory over the Byzantine army

• 1071 CE

• Near Manzikert, eastern Anatolia

• Weakened Byzantine control of Anatolia and contributed to increased Turkic settlement there

Uthman b. al-Affan

• Uthman, early Muslim leader

• Third caliph after Muhammad

• Caliph: 644–656 CE

• Medina and expanding Islamic empire

• Associated with establishing a standardized written version of the Qur'an and overseeing major territorial expansion

Umar b. al-Khattab

• Umar, early Muslim leader

• Second caliph

• Caliph: 634–644 CE

• Medina and expanding Islamic empire

• Oversaw major expansion of the Muslim state and developed administrative systems

Karbala

• Husayn ibn Ali and his followers vs. forces of Yazid

• Battle in which Husayn, Muhammad's grandson, was killed

• 680 CE

• Karbala, modern-day Iraq

• A foundational event in Shia Islam, symbolizing resistance, sacrifice, and opposition to unjust rule