Traditional Approaches (Traits, Behavior, Situation; 9/27/2026)

What is the question about leadership that is asked most frequently?

Are leaders born or made?

“Great man” theories

Focused on identifying innate characteristics possessed by prominent and successful leaders. Gave birth to the traits approach. Not any actual specific “theory.”

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Leadership gene. Inherited DNA sequence associated with people taking charge

What did De Neve et al. (2013) find when using a twin study design?

The heritability of leadership role occupancy is about 24%

What does the knowledge of the leadership gene contribute?

While there is no immediate practical utility for having this knowledge, but now that we know the genetic variation, this can explain the variation we see in leadership role occupancy. Results can inform future research.

We can use genetic information to select a leader for a position.

FALSE

Judge et al., 2004 meta-analysis found what correlation between intelligence and leader effectiveness?

0.33

Judge et al., 2004 meta-analysis found what correlation between intelligence and perceived emergence?

0.25

Judge et al., 2004 meta-analysis found what correlation between intelligence and perceived leader emergence?

0.65

What did Antonakis et al. (2017) find in regard to optimal level of intelligence for leaders?

High intelligence could be too much of a good thing for leaders (depending on group’s average)

Under what conditions could a person of average intelligence become an outstanding leader?

How could we bridge the gap between highly intelligent leaders and average intelligent followers?

Use knowledge of zone of proximal development and the expert blind spot to provide support to members through scaffolding techniques. Support options could look like:

• More flexible group guidelines

• Breaking project into chunks

• Providing suitable timeframes

• More structure and communication

According to Judge et al. (2002), which FFM trait is most highly correlated with leadership, both emergence and effectiveness, regardless of the context

Extraversion

Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis found what correlation between Openness to Experience and leadership?

0.24

Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis found what correlation between Conscientiousness and leadership?

0.28

Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis found what correlation between Extraversion and leadership?

0.31

Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis found what correlation between Agreeableness and leadership?

0.08

Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis found what correlation between Neuroticism (low emotional stability) and leadership?

-0.24

Strenghs-based leadership

Emphasizes the talents in which people excel and thrive (natural talents). Strengths are considered raw traits that are then reinforced.

Why is it important for leaders to know their strentghs?

Leaders tend to face challenges that go beyond any individuals capabilities so the best leaders own their strengths while collaborating with others to make up their weak strengths.

Where should more time by expended by leaders: fixing their weak areas or honing their strengths?

Bisi’s answer: Good to know weak areas and get substitutes. Example) getting an executive assistant for leaders without good time management skills. You excel in life by maximizing your strengths instead of fixing every weakness.

Other traits that have emerged and looked at in regards to leadership.

Energy level, physical stamina, and stress tolerance; self-confidence; internal locus of control; need for affiliation; emotional stability and maturity; core self-evaluation; socialized power orientation; personal integrity; narcissism; achievement orientation.

Core self-evaluation

Reflect a broad personality trait that involves a basic fundamental appraisal of one’s worthiness, capability and effectiveness as a person.

Socialized power orientation

Leaders who have this are more emotionally mature and exercise power more for the benefit of other people. They are hesitant to use their power in an egotative manner. Longer-range view.

Narcissism does not predict positive outcomes in leadership

FALSE

Traits that are undesirable to have too much or too little of

• Self-confidence

• Need for esteem

• Need for achievement; Need for affiliation

• Performance orientation

• Need for independence

• Altruism

• Narcissism (although research has shown that many successful leaders are high on narcissism, such as Bisi’s examples of Bill Clinton and Elon Musk).

How much variance do leader traits (intelligence, personality, gender) account for in leadership effectiveness ratings

22%

How much variance in group performance is attributable to leader traits?

14%

Skills Model of Leadership

Goal is to identify the leadership factors that create exemplary job performance in an organization. Emphasizes the capabilities that make effective leadership possible rather than what leaders do. Examines relationships between a leader’s knowledge and skills and the leader’s performance. Suggests that many people have the potential to be leaders

Three-skill approach

Taxonomy that includes technical, human, and conceptual skills where the relative importance changes based on level of leadership/management level. Depends on type of organization, size of organization, organizational structure, degree of centrality and authority within the organization.

Behavior/Style Approach

Emphasizes the behavior of the leader. Focuses exclusively on what leaders do and how they act. Ohio State, University of Michigan, Blake and Mouton studies are strongly representative of the ideas in this approach

Ohio State Leadership Studies

Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire. 150 items. Participant settings included military, industrial, and educational. Identify number of times leaders engaged in specific behaviors. Results show two clusters (initiating structure and consideration) of behaviors were typical of leaders and were considered bipolar constructs.

LBDQ-XII

Shortened version of the initial Ohio State Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire. Most widely used leadership assessment instrument.

Initiating structure (production orientation) result of leader behavior from the LBDQ-XII

Leaders provide structure for subordinates. Task behaviors: organizing work, giving structure to the work context, defining role responsibility, and scheduling work activities

Consideration (employee orientation) result of leader behavior from the LBDQ-XII

Leaders nurture subordinates. Relationship behaviors - building camaraderie, respect, trust, and liking between leaders and followers.

Why is the LBDQ-XII the most widely used leadership assessment instrument?

It is well validated and easy to deploy.

Example of a behavior that blends both initiating structure and consideration

Making a decision as a participative leader.

Michigan Leadership Studies

Similar to the Ohio Leadership Studies. Gave special attention to the impact of leaders’ behaviors on the performance of small groups. Leadership behaviors include employee orientation and production orientation. 2 independent leadership orientations.

Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid

Best known model of leadership behavior, even amongst practitioners. Designed to explain how leaders help organizations to reach their goals through two factors:

• Concern for people

• Concern for results

Model is a self-assessment tool that individuals can use to identify their leadership style. Found that people tend to have a dominant grid style and a back-up grid style when a leader is under pressure or a time crunch.

Situational Approach

Focuses on leadership in situations and the need to adopt style based on situational demands.

Direct effect of a leadership situation

Can directly encourage/constrain leader behavior and/or substitute for leadership

Moderator effect of a leadership situation

Can serve as an enhancer or neutralizer

Contingency model of leadership effectiveness

Describes aspects of the situation that determine what type of leader behavior is most likely to be effective in each type of situation.

Stewart model of situational determinants of leader behavior

• Demands

• Constraints

• Choices

• Patterns of relationships

• Work patterns

• Exposure

• Leader discretion

Other situational determinants of leader behavior

• Level of management

• Subunit size

• External dependencies

• Extreme contexts

Path-Goal Theory

Explains how leaders motivate followers to accomplish designated goals. How a leader’s behaviors influence subordinate satisfaction and performance in different situations. Provides direction on how leaders can help followers to accomplish their work a satisfactory manner.

Leadership Subsistutes Theory

Suggests that some situational variables (i.e., characteristics of the subordinates, task, and the org.) make certain leader behaviors redundant or ineffective leader behaviors. A situation with many substitutes may greatly reduce the potential impact of leader behavior on subordinate motivation and satisfaction. It may be necessary to remove neutralizers and increase substitutes for a leader to be effective in some situations.

Substitutes for task-oriented or instrumental leadership

A highly structured and repetitive task, extensive rules and standard procedures, and extensive prior training and experience for subordinates

Substitutes for relationship-oriented or supportive leadership

A cohesive work group in which the team members support each other, and an intrinsically satisfying task that is not stressful

Substitutes for contingent reward behavior

Professionals who are internally motivated by their values, needs, and ethics.