SOCIOLOGY Dr. Henderson Test 1 Study Guide

Independent variable

The presumed cause or factor that influences changes in another characteristic.

Dependent variable

The outcome or effect measured to see how it is influenced by another factor.

Controlled variable

A factor a researcher holds constant to isolate the true relationship between main variables.

Experimental variable

Any factor, trait, or condition a researcher changes, controls, or measures to test cause-and-effect.

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to use one's own culture as the standard to evaluate and judge other cultures.

Groups

A collection of two or more people who interact, share similar characteristics, and feel a common sense of belonging.

Aggregates

A collection of people in the same place at the same time with no lasting social structure or collective identity.

Secondary analysis

Using pre-existing data collected by others to investigate new research questions.

Field research

A qualitative method of collecting primary data by observing people in their natural environments.

Existing sources

Data and texts collected, recorded, or published by someone other than the current researcher.

Experiments

A controlled research method where a scientist manipulates independent variables to measure effects on dependent variables.

C. Wright Mills

Sociologist known for the sociological imagination and the concept of the power elite.

Karl Marx (class division)

Society divided between the bourgeoisie (wealthy owners) and proletariat (workers).

Validity vs. Reliability

Validity measures if a method accurately measures what it intends; reliability measures consistency and repeatability.

Socialization

The lifelong process of learning and internalizing culture, values, and norms.

Resocialization

The intense process of unlearning old behaviors and values when entering a new social environment.

Anticipatory socialization

Learning and adopting the values and norms of a future group before officially entering it.

Formal sanctions

Official, institutionalized rewards or punishments to enforce social norms and laws.

Agricultural societies

Societies organized around crop cultivation and animal domestication, with wealth derived from land.

Society vs. Culture

Society refers to people in a geographic area interacting; culture refers to shared beliefs, values, and practices.

Value neutrality

The practice of remaining impartial and free of bias while conducting a study.

Ethnography

A qualitative research method where investigators immerse themselves in a specific social setting for a long time.

Case studies

An in-depth, intensive research design examining a single social unit or small group within its natural context.

Deviance

Any behavior, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms or social expectations.

Egoistic suicide

Suicide driven by low social integration and lack of strong social bonds.

Altruistic suicide

Suicide driven by very high social integration, sacrificing oneself for the group.

Anomic suicide

Suicide driven by excessive social regulation or major changes in circumstances like financial failure.

Fatalistic suicide

Suicide where a person feels trapped by strict rules with little control over their future.

Interpretive framework

A research approach seeking in-depth understanding of social worlds through direct observation rather than hypothesis testing.

Material culture

The physical objects, resources, and spaces that people create and assign meaning to.

Preparatory stage (Mead)

Children imitate others without fully understanding the meaning of the behavior.

Play stage (Mead)

Children begin taking on the roles of others, such as pretending to be a doctor.

Game stage (Mead)

Children understand they must consider multiple people's roles simultaneously.

Generalized other (Mead)

Understanding of society's broader expectations and rules.

Social inequity

The unequal distribution of resources, power, and opportunities among groups.

Popular culture

Widely shared beliefs, practices, and expressions accessible to the majority of a society.

High culture

Cultural patterns and preferences belonging to a society's elite or upper class.

Nature vs. nurture

Examines whether human traits are driven by biology or social learning and environment.

Xenocentrism

The belief or assumption that another culture is superior to one's own.

Habitualization

The process by which frequently repeated human actions become established patterns requiring minimal conscious thought.

Cultural universal

An element, pattern, or institution common to all human cultures worldwide.

Hunter-gatherer society

Small population, nomadic or semi-nomadic society.

Horticultural society

Society characterized by small-scale gardening and simple tools.

Pastoral society

Society where domesticated animals are central to survival.

Industrial society

Society driven by machine production, factories, and urbanization.

Postindustrial society

Society where information, services, technology, and knowledge become increasingly important.

Crime vs. Deviance

Crime is a specific type of deviance that breaks formal, written laws.

Laissez-Faire

A hands-off approach where authorities exercise minimal regulation or interference.

Hawthorne effect

A phenomenon where people change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

Reference group

A group people use as a standard to evaluate and compare themselves.

Primary group

A small, close-knit social group characterized by intimate, face-to-face associations.

Secondary group

A large, impersonal, and goal-oriented gathering of people focused on a specific task.

Control theory

The idea that people obey norms and avoid deviance because internal and external controls restrain them.

Labeling theory

The view that deviance is a consequence of the application of rules and negative labels by society.

Differential association theory

Proposes that deviant behavior is learned through social interactions and communication with others.

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale social systems, structures, and long-term patterns across entire societies.

Mesosociology

An intermediate level of sociological analysis focusing on mid-sized structures and organizations.

Cultural imperialism

The process where a dominant society imposes its values and media onto a non-dominant culture.

Social control

The mechanisms that society uses to influence individual behavior and maintain social order.