Bio 61 flashcards

Anatomy

Is the biological structure of the body/organism

Physiology is the study of

the normal function of living organisms

Evolution

Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

Tissues

Groups of cells with a common structure and function.

epithelial tissue

A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out

connective tissue

A body tissue that provides support for the body and connects all of its parts

Organs

Groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or related functions

Fibroblasts

In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.

Macrophages

Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.

Vertebrates have

The fibers and foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissues:

1. loose (connects organs)

2. cartilage (strong and flexible support)

3. fibrous (found in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints)

4. Adipose tissue (stores fat/fuel)

5. Blood (composed of blood cells and fragments in blood plasma

6. Bone (mineralized and forms the skeleton

Muscle tissue

Consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals. It is divided in the body into three types:

Skeletal muscle: striated muscle is used for voluntary movement

Smooth muscle: responsible for involuntary body activities

Cardiac muscle: responsible for contraction of the heart muscle

Nervous tissue

Senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal; it contains neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses. Glial cells, or glia, help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons.

Hormones

hey are part of the endocrine system and they transmit chemical signals to receptive cells through the body through the blood. Hormones can affect more than one region, they are also slow acting but long lasting.

Nervous system

Transmits information from different locations. The info is then conveyed depending on the signal. They are very fast and can be received by muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells.

Regulator

Uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external environmental fluctuation.

conformer

An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

negative feedback

A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.

positive feedback

Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output.

Thermoregulation

Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.

Endothermic

Absorbs heat

Ectothermic

cold blooded

Heat: 4 processes

Radiation

Evaporation

Convection

Conduction

integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

circulatory adaptations

regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation

countercurrent exchange

the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss.

cooling by evaporative heat loss

Many animals lose heat through evaporation of water from their skin. Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many mammals. Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

Heredity

the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another.

Variation

differences in physical traits of an individual from the group to which it belongs

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity

asexual reproduction

Process by which a single parent reproduces by itself

sexual reproduction

A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents

life cycle

The generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.

Karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

homologous chromosomes (homologs)

in a diploid organism, chromosomes that are similar in size, shape, and gene content

Chromosomes X and Y

are sex chromosomes that determines gender

Diploid cell

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited from each parent.

Gametes/haploid cells

-single set of chromosomes for a total of 23

-produced by special type of division: meiosis

Zygote

a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

Single-Gene (Monogenic MUTATION) Disorders:

Caused by a mutation in one specific gene. These follow distinct inheritance patterns.

Autosomal Recessive

two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop

autosomal dominant

inheritance pattern of a dominant allele on an autosome

X-Linked Disorders

Genetic conditions that result from mutations to genes on the X chromosome. They are almost always expressed in males, who have only one copy of the X chromosome; in females, the second X chromosome containing the normally functioning allele protects them from developing X-linked disorders.

Chromosomal Disorders

Caused by a missing, extra, or structurally altered chromosome (the large packages holding hundreds or thousands of genes)

Complex (Multifactorial) Disorders

Multiple factors are hard to figure out because they are found to be caused by small changes in environment and genetics. Caused by a combination of small variations in multiple genes working together with lifestyle and environmental factors (such as diet, smoking, or chemical exposure). Examples: Heart disease, type 2 diabetes, most cases of autism spectrum disorder, and many cancers.

Mitochondrial disorders

Caused by mutations in the non-nuclear DNA of mitochondria (the powerhouses of cells). These are exclusively passed down from the mother.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

antiparallel

The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.

Nucleotide monomer

sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

Sugar phosphate backbones

these form the sides of the DNA ladder.

Complementary base pairings

The two strands run in opposite directions. Antiparallel, 5'-3' and 3' - 5' and connect in the center via hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases:

Location: in eukaryotes, DNA is packed into chromosomes inside the cell nucleus. (plus a small amount in mitochondria); in prokaryotes, it's located in the cytoplasm.

Purines= [G, A] pure as gold

• these can only pair with pyrimidines; they cannot pair with each other

• have two rings

Pyrimidines= [C, T, U ] cut the pie

• these can only pair with pyrimidines; they cannot pair with each other

• only have one ring

Nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Nucleic acid

macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus

Nitrogen Base

a DNA nucleotide containing nitrogen, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group

Pentose Sugar

a five-carbon sugar molecule found in nucleic acids

Nucleotide polymers

made up of nucleotides linked by the -OH group on the 3' carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5' carbon on the next

Pyrimides

Cytosine and Thymine

Purines

Adenine and Guanine

Independent assortment

One of Mendel's principles that states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes

Rules of probability

This governs how alleles are organized and can present themselves in humans/animals

The multiplication rule

a fundamental formula in probability theory used to find the probability of two or more events occurring together (the intersection of events, denoted as P(AandB) or P(AB))

The law of segregation

mandel's first law, diploid organisms inherit two alleles for each trait (one from each parent), and these allele pairs randomly separate (segregate) during gamete formation (meiosis) so that each gamete receives only one allele

Mendel's model

Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments

The testcross

cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype

The laws of probability govern mendelian inheritance

The multiplication and addition rules applied to monohybrid crosses: a way to product

Key steps of DNA replication:

(1) proteins bind to specific sites on chromosomes called replication origins (ori)

(2) portions of the DNA double helix are unwound

(3) parental strands serve as templates to direct the synthesis of new daughter strands

lagging strand

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.

Landing strand

(landing a plane) a straight part of the DNA strand that elongates and its smooth

Topoisomerase

corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands

Okazaki fragments

Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.

Helicase

An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.

Primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.

DNA ligase

A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.

DNA polymerase

Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule

RNA primer

short segment of RNA used to initiate synthesis of a new strand of DNA during replication