Exam 1 (Prologue, Ch 1, Ch 2, Ch 5)

Three main schools of psychology

Structuralism

Functionalism

Behaviorism

Wundt's school of psychology

Structuralism

James' school of psychology

Functionalism

Watson's school of psychology

Behaviorism

Structuralism

Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable an organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Behaviorism

psychology as an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Psychology evolved from ...

Philosophy and Physiology

Basic Assumptions of Science

evolution

naturalism

materialism

relativism

determinism

reductionism

Biblical Presuppositions

we were created

we have a soul

we are sinful

we are sanctified

Contemporary Perspectives

neuroscience

evolutionary

behavior genetics/behavior

psychodynamics

cognitive

social/cultural

Who are Psychologists?

5 years avg. MA/PHD, 3 years for Marriage and Family

Psychiatrists earn MD (they are doctors)

Empirical

based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic

experience is the sole source of knowledge

Types of Description

naturalistic observation

case study

survey

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations w/o trying to manipulate or control the situation

describes behavior, doesn't explain it

Case Study

examining one individual or group in depth in hope of revealing things true to all

Survey

looks @ many cases in less depth, uses random sampling

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents all those in a group being studied because each member has an equal chance in answering

Correlation

measure of extent to which 2 factors vary together, and thus of how well either factors predict the other

Smaller shoe size --> Smaller vocabulary correlation

the smaller the shoe size, the younger you are, thus the smaller vocabulary

AGE needs to be held constant

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationships between two things (-1.00 to 1.00)

Regression Towards the Mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the avg.

Correlation & Causation

correlation does not prove causation, correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such

Experimentation

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable)

by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experimental Group

people exposed to the treatment (to one version of the independent variable)

Control Group

people who are not exposed to the treatment, contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluation the effect of the treatment

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Independent Variable

the factor in an experiment that is being manipulated, the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent Variable

the outcome in an experiment that is being measured, the

variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Still face mother and baby experiment (IV and DV)

IV- mom's expression

DV- baby's reaction

Confounding Variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypotheses

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definitions

carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Nervous System

body's electrochemical communication network

consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Functional divisions of the nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

(nerves encased in bone)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

neurons that carry incoming info from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (to the CNS)

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord (from the CNS) to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within CNS

communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (aka skeletal nervous system)

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as heart)

its sympathetic division arouses

its parasympathetic division calms

Simple Reflex

an afferent neuron carries the message that a sensory receoptor has been stimulated to an interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron responds by activating motor neurons that will enable the appropriate response.

Parts of a Neuron

cell body

dendrite

axon

myelin sheath

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the route the message travels

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fatty cells that covers many axons and helps speed neural impulses

All-or-nothing Response

neurons are like guns, they either fire or they don't

Nerve cells never physically touch!

Inhibitory vs. Excitatory

Inhibitory - tells the next cell NOT to fire Excitatory - tells the next cell TO fire

Cell Body

the cells's life support center

functions as the "adding machine"; adds up + and - until the threshhold is reached

Synaptic Gap

aka synaptic cleft

where the axon terminal of one neuron is separated from the receiving neuron (gap is less than a millionth of an inch wide

river analogy; the +/- charged ions in the river; etc

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the snaps and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing where that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Types of Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Dopamine

Serotonin

Norepinephrine

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Glutamate

Acetylcholine (ACh)

enables the muscle action, learning, and memory

causes the contraction of muscle fibers whenstimulated by motor neurons. It is found at the junction between motor neurons and muscle fibers

Alzheimer's disease- ACh producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

too little >> may lead to Parkinson's Disease

too much >> may lead to Schizophrenia

Serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

not enough >> depression

drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

not enough >> can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

not enough GABA >> seizures, tremors, insomnia

used to control epeleptic seizure; tranquilizers use GABA

Glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory

too much >> overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures

Neuromodulators

make "keys" work better.

Endorphins

"morphine within"

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

keys get sucked back up by the vacuum into the garage

How cocaine affects the nervous system

cocaine increases levels of the natural chemical messenger dopamine in brain circuits controlling pleasure and movement

cocaine prevents dopamine from recycling, causing excessive amounts to build up between nerve cells. (blocks reuptake system) This flood of dopamine ultimately disrupts normal brain communication and causes cocaine's high

Split Brain

cutting the corpus callosum (wide band of axon fibers connecting 2 hemispheres and carrying messages between them)

personality and intellect hardly affected

cut to control seizures

Agonists

molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

may increase the production or release of neurotransmitters or block reuptake in the synapse or they are similar enough to neurotransmitter to bind to the receptor and mimic the effects

Antagonists

molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action (blocking production or release)

antagonist molecules are enough like the natural neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block its effect, but not similar enough to activate the receptor

Nature-Nurture Issue

longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

genetic vs. experience

nature: genetic

nurture: prenatal chemical, postnatal chemical, general experimental, individual experimental, traumatic factors

Prenatal Stages of Development

zygote

embryo

fetus

Zygote

0-2 weeks

the fertilized egg, 2 week cycle of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Embryo

2-9 weeks

the developing human organism from 2 weeks through the second month

Fetus

9 weeks - birth

the developing human organism from 9 weeks to birth

Teratogens

"monster maker"

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can cross the placental barrier and reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

ex. X-rays, drugs & alcohol, measles

Rooting Reflex

tendency for a newborn to open mouth and search for nipple when touched on cheek

Newborn Preferences

newborns will stare longer @ things that confuse them

will prefer mother over strangers (breast feeding and comfort)

Newborn Reflexes

sucking, tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

Newborn Social Development

social interchanges- interactions with reciprocal influences (parents mimicking baby sounds, basic beginning of conversation)

physical contact & deprivation- lack of physical touch can lead to the lack of social devolopment

Harlow's Studies

monkey baby, wire mother with food, and terry cloth mother

baby will go to wire mother for food, but will hang on to try cloth mother after

when scared monkey baby will run to terry cloth mother

Jean Paiget

1896-1980

studied how knowledge is acquired, focused on children's errors in cognition

developed 4 major stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational

Sensorimotor Stage

birth-2 years

infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

young infants lack object permanence: awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

2-6/7 years

learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of logic

lack the concept of conservation: principle that properties stay the same despite changes in the forms of it (same water amts. in diff cups)

children are egocentric: difficulty taking another's point of view

start to form theory of mind: ideas about their own and other's feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and behaviors these might predict

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years

children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

12 years-adulthood

begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schemas

cognitive structures, concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

ways of looking at the world that organize our past experiences and provide a framework for understanding our future experiences

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information and the particulars of new experiences

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

preconventional: self interest, obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

conventional: uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

postconventional: actions reflect belief in basic rights and self defined ethical principles

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

infancy

toddlerhood

preschool

elementary school

adolescence

young adulthood

middle adulthood

late adulthood