American Government and Political Science Exam Review

Vocabulary flashcards covering core political science concepts, foundational documents, constitutional rules, key Supreme Court rulings, civil liberties, civil rights, federalism, political socialization, and mass media.

Hammurabi's Code

Law code of ancient Babylon that provided a single, uniform code of law for the entire empire and served as the first example of fundamental laws unchangeable even by the king.

Ten Commandments

Simple behavioral instructions received by Moses from God according to the Bible; served as the source of law for the Hebrews of Palestine and the basis of all Western law.

Natural law (Romans)

Roman belief in certain basic rights that belong to everyone, even conquered nations.

Social contract

Concept where common people give up some freedoms to government in exchange for protection of their rights and well-being.

Divine Right of Kings (Middle Ages)

The belief that the king was chosen by and spoke for God, meaning everything the king said was right because God is never wrong.

Magna Carta (1215)

First attempt at a social contract that established the principle of limited government and introduced non-revokable rights such as trial by jury, due process, and protection against unjust punishment.

Petition of Right (1628)

Document limiting the king's power and challenging divine right by requiring Parliament's consent and granting rights against taxation without representation, quartering soldiers, and peacetime martial law.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Document written by Parliament and signed by King William and Queen Mary to limit absolute monarchy; established parliamentary permission for taxes/military and individual protections.

Thomas Hobbes

Author of Leviathan and father of natural rights who held a negative view of humanity and first introduced social contract theory to prevent chaos.

John Locke

Author of Two Treatises of Government who believed in natural rights (born free, equal, and independent), land ownership in the social contract, and popular sovereignty.

Montesquieu

Author of The Spirit of the Laws who advocated for limited government, separation of power into three branches, and checks and balances.

Declaration of Independence

Document proposed by Henry Lee and drafted by Thomas Jefferson (approved July 2, 1776; final July 4, 1776) listing complaints against the king, emphasizing natural rights, and referencing the social contract.

Articles of Confederation (1777)

The first U.S. constitution that granted most power to the states and featured only one branch of central government (Congress).

Shays' Rebellion

A revolt of Massachusetts farmers led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays against property seizure for unpaid heavy taxes, highlighting national military and financial weakness.

Virginia Plan (large state plan)

Proposal by Edmund Randolph featuring a three-branch government, a bicameral legislature based on population, legislative election of executive/judicial branches, and federal veto over state laws.

New Jersey Plan (small state plan)

Proposal by William Paterson advocating for a unicameral legislature with equal representation (one vote per state), multiple executives chosen by the legislature, and an appointed judiciary.

Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise)

James Madison's proposal for a bicameral legislature with a lower house elected by the people based on population (3/5 compromise) and an upper house with equal representation (two per state).

Unitary government

A system where all local and state authority is derived from a central national government (e.g., England).

Confederation

A system where states retain sovereignty, resulting in a weak central government dependent on state power (e.g., Articles of Confederation).

Federal system

A system where power is divided, delegating specific authority to the national government while reserving other powers for state and local governments.

Supremacy Clause

Constitutional requirement establishing that state laws cannot contradict or override federal law.

Express (enumerated) powers

Powers specifically granted to the national government in the Constitution, such as the income tax power under the 16th Amendment.

Implied powers

Powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause that are required to execute express powers.

Reserved powers (police power)

Powers not delegated to the national government that are reserved to the states under the 10th Amendment (e.g., school curriculum, drinking age).

Concurrent powers

Powers shared and regulated by both national and state governments, including taxation, criminal law, and civil rights protection.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Landmark Supreme Court case that established the power of judicial review.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Supreme Court ruling stating Congress has implied powers to create a national bank and states cannot tax federal institutions.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Supreme Court ruling confirming that only Congress can regulate interstate commerce, defining navigation and transportation as commerce.

Categorical grants

Federal funds allocated to states for specific, narrow purposes such as airport construction or special education.

Block grants

Federal funds given to states for broad general policy areas, such as education or healthcare, allowing states discretion in usage.

Unfunded mandates

Federal requirements imposed on states without federal funding to execute them (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act).

Dual federalism

Federalism model maintaining that federal and state governments are separate, equal, and distinct in their respective jurisdictions.

Cooperative federalism (1930s)

Federalism model starting during the New Deal where the national government works jointly with states, establishing federal supremacy in state affairs.

Devolution

The policy of transferring powers and program administration from the federal government back to the states, initiated during the Reagan administration.

Civil liberties

Basic rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution or judicial interpretation that protect individuals against government interference.

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

Supreme Court decision establishing the precedent that the Bill of Rights originally applied only to the federal government, not to state governments.

Process of incorporation

The procedure by which courts apply provisions of the Bill of Rights to state governments through the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Supreme Court case that incorporated freedom of speech, ruling states cannot violate 1st Amendment speech rights under the 14th Amendment.

Establishment Clause

1st Amendment clause preventing Congress from establishing an official state religion or passing laws respecting religion.

Free Exercise Clause

1st Amendment provision prohibiting the federal government from restricting an individual's right to freely practice religion.

Lemon Test

Three-part test used to judge government aid to religious entities: must have a secular purpose, primary effect must not advance/inhibit religion, and must avoid excessive government entanglement.

Prior restraint

Government action that forbids the publication of material in advance, rather than penalizing its content after publication.

New York Times v. United States (Pentagon Papers)

Rulings restricting prior restraint during non-wartime, stating the government cannot stop publication unless it demonstrates a direct threat to national security.

Libel

False and malicious use of written words intended to defame a person, which is not protected by free speech.

Slander

False and malicious use of spoken words intended to defame a person, which is not protected by free speech.

New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)

Landmark ruling protecting the press by requiring public figures to prove 'actual malice' (knowledge of falsity or reckless disregard) to win defamation suits.

Exclusionary Rule

Legal principle prohibiting evidence obtained through unconstitutional or illegal searches from being introduced in court.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Supreme Court case extending the 4th Amendment Exclusionary Rule to state law enforcement officers.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Ruling requiring police to inform suspects in custody of their rights against self-incrimination and to legal counsel before questioning.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Case incorporating the 6th Amendment through the 14th Amendment, guaranteeing the right to an attorney in all felony charges.

Equal Protection Clause

14th Amendment clause forbidding government from unreasonably discriminating or drawing arbitrary distinctions between groups of people.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Supreme Court ruling declaring that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, ordering school desegregation.

De jure segregation

Segregation mandated and enforced directly by law.

De facto segregation

Segregation and discrimination occurring through practical social and economic reality rather than statute.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Law signed by Lyndon Johnson that outlawed discrimination by private businesses and state/local governments.

Strict scrutiny

Highest standard of judicial review applied to race, national origin, and fundamental rights, requiring a compelling state interest.

Intermediate scrutiny

Standard of judicial review applied to sex and legitimacy classifications, requiring an important government objective substantially related to the goal.

Rational basis

Lowest standard of judicial review applied to age, wealth, and economic regulations, requiring only a plausible government rationale.

Political socialization

The process by which political attitudes are developed through sources like family, mass media, schools, social groups, and major events.

Yellow journalism

Hyper-sensationalized and sometimes false reporting designed to sell newspapers, historically associated with Randolph Hearst and Pulitzer.

Agenda-setting function

The capacity of the media to shape public perception by prioritizing which topics are reported, telling the public what issues to think about.